Veil / Head-Covering

A short preview….

Shepherd of Hermas (85-90 AD):

A virgin meets me, adorned as if she were proceeding from the bridal chamber, clothed entirely in white, and with white sandals, and veiled up to her forehead, and her head was covered by a hood. – Shepherd of Hermas, Vision 4, chapter 1

Irenaeus (130 – 202 AD):

… In the same Epistle, when [Paul] says, “A woman ought to have a veil upon her head, because of the angels…” Moses rendered manifest when he put a veil upon his face. – Irenaeus, Against Heresies, Book I, Chapter 8

Clement of Alexandria (150 – 215 AD):

Let the woman observe this, further. Let her be entirely covered, unless she happen to be at home…. nor will she invite another to fall into sin by uncovering her face. – Clement of Alexandria, Instructor of Children, book 3, chapter 11

It has also been commanded that the head should be veiled and the face covered; for it is a wicked thing for beauty to be a snare to men. – Clement of Alexandria, Instructor of Children, book 2, chapter 11

But by no manner of means are women to be allotted to uncover and exhibit any part of their person, lest both fall, — the men by being excited to look, they by drawing on themselves the eyes of the men. – Clement of Alexandria, Instructor of Children, book 2, chapter 2

[A wife should be] avoiding frequent departures from the house, and shutting herself up as far as possible from the view of all not related to her…. – Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata, Book 2, chapter 23

Tertullian (155 – 220 AD):

God bids you “be veiled.” I believe (He does so) for fear the heads of some should be seen! – Tertullian, On the Apparel of Women, book 2, chapter 7

So perilous a face, then, ought to be hidden. – Tertullian, On the Veiling of Virgins, chapter 7

For who will have the audacity to intrude with his eyes upon a shrouded face? – Tertullian, On the Veiling of Virgins, chapter 15

Origen of Alexandria (185 – 253 AD):

The Bridegroom asks her, when she comes to that place which He has just specified as being more secluded, to lay aside her veil and show her face to Him. – Origen, Song of Songs, Book 3, chapter 15

She walks thus veiled and covered, however, because she ought to have a power over her head, because of the angels. – Origen, Song of Songs, Book 3, chapter 15

“I show not my naked face to any save Thee only.” – Origen, Song of Songs, Homily 1, chapter 8

Hippolytus (170 – 235 AD):

And let all the women have their heads covered with an opaque cloth, not with a veil of thin linen, for this is not a true covering. – Hippolytus, Apostolic Tradition, chapter 18

“The lawless ones commanded her to be unveiled (for she was covered), in order that they may be filled with her beauty.” Let us consider, beloved, of what evil this action was. For while the apostle said, “A woman ought to have a veil upon her head on account of the angels,” these men did the opposite, they commanded that she be unveiled in front of the people and at this they were not ashamed. – Hippolytus, Commentary on Daniel, Book 1, chapter 26.4

Ordinances of the Apostles (Didascalia Apostolorum, 200-250 AD):

And when you walk in the street, cover your head with your robe, that by reason of your veil your great beauty may be hidden. And adorn not your natural face; but walk with downcast looks, being veiled. – Chapter 3

Cover your face from strange men with a veil of modesty…. – Chapter 3

For it behooves women by a veil of modesty and humility to show (their) fear of God, for the conversion and the increase of faith of them that are without, (both) of men and women. – Chapter 3

Apostolic Constitutions (300-400 AD):

And when you are in the streets, cover your head; for by such a covering you will avoid being viewed of idle persons…. Look downward when you walk abroad, veiling yourself as becomes women. – Apostolic Constitutions, Book 1, section 3

She is to veil her face, and conceal it with modesty from strange men. – Apostolic Constitutions, Book 1, section 3

Athanasius (296 – 373 AD):

If you should by chance meet someone, let your face be veiled, lower your gaze, and do not lift your face toward a man, but only toward your God. – Pseudo-Athanasius, Discourse on Salvation to a Virgin, chapter 11

Mary was, therefore, a pure virgin…. She did not desire to be seen by men…. Instead, she remained diligently at home, living a life of seclusion, like a honeybee…. She left no part of her body uncovered. – Athanasius, Pastoral Letters, Letter to Virgins

Zeno of Verona (300 –380 AD):

“When Judah saw the woman, he thought she was a prostitute, even though she had covered her face—thereby actually signaling the integrity of her chastity. – Zeno of Verona, Treatise XIV. On Judah, Chapter 1

“She veils her face so as not to be recognized.” – Zeno of Verona, Treatise XIV. On Judah, Chapter 4

Ambrose of Milan (339 – 397 AD):

Was it a small sign of modesty that when Rebecca came to wed Isaac, and saw her bridegroom, she took a veil, that she might not be seen before they were united? – Ambrose, Concerning Virginity, chapter 3

Let custom itself teach us. A woman covers her face with a veil for this reason, that in public her modesty may be safe…. But if she cover her head with a veil that she may not accidentally see or be seen (for when the head is veiled the face is hidden), how much more ought she to cover herself with the veil of modesty, so as even in public to have her own secret place. – Ambrose, Two Books Concerning Repentance, Book 1, Chapter 14

John Chrysostom (347 – 407 AD):

Paul however requires something more of women, that they adorn themselves in modest apparel, with shamefacedness. … But what is this modest apparel? Such attire as covers them completely.” – John Chrysostom, Commentary on 1 Timothy, Homily 8

He signifies that not at the time of prayer only but also continually, she ought to be covered. – John Chrysostom, Commentary on First Corinthians, Homily 26

For he said not merely covered, but covered over, meaning that she be carefully wrapped up on every side. – John Chrysostom, Commentary on First Corinthians, Homily 26

Gregory of Nazianzus (329 – 390 AD):

Adorn your head by covering it, your brow by keeping it restrained, your eyes by bowing them down and glancing about with decency… and your whole face with the hue of shame. – Gregory of Nazianzus, Letter 244

Who was more deserving of renown, and yet who avoided it so much and made herself inaccessible to the eyes of man? … Listen, you women addicted to ease and display, who despise the veil (κάλυμμα) of shamefacedness. – Gregory of Nazianzus, Oration 8, Funeral Oration on His Sister Gorgonia, chapter 9

Cyril of Jerusalem (313 – 386 AD):

The veiling of your face is to foster recollection, lest a roving eye make your heart also stray. But the veiling of the eyes does not hinder the ears from receiving salvation. – Cyril of Jerusalem, Prologue to the Catechetical Lectures, chapter 9

God grant that, your soul’s face unveiled with a clear conscience, you may “reflecting as in a glass the glory of the Lord,” go “from glory to glory” in Christ Jesus our Lord, whose is the glory forever and ever. Amen. – Cyril of Jerusalem, On The Mysteries, Lecture 4

Basil of Caesarea (330 – 379 AD):

Dissolute women, having forgotten the fear of God and scorned the eternal fire… have cast off the yoke of Christ’s bondage. They have thrown off the veils of modesty from their heads, despised God, and disregarded His angels. They have shamelessly exposed themselves to the eyes of men. – Basil of Caesarea, Homily 14, On The Drunkards, Patrologia Graeca 31, 447-448

Ambrosiaster (366–384 AD):

The honor and dignity of the man are said to prevent him from covering his head; for it is inappropriate for the image of God to be concealed: indeed it should not be hidden, for the glory of God is seen in the man. – Ambrosiaster, PL 17:252-260

So that the invisible God might have the image of one visible man on earth… therefore, the woman ought to cover her head because she is not the image of God. – Ambrosiaster, PL 17:252-260

Rufinus of Aquileia (340 – 410 AD):

Are these limbs, then, which the common air itself has hardly known, to be prostituted in the common brothels? – Rufinus, Church History, book 8, chapter 12, paragraph 3

Jerome (342 – 420 AD):

You should choose for your companions staid and serious women, particularly widows and virgins, persons of approved conversation, of few words, and of a holy modesty… who veils all of her face except her eyes, and only uses these to find her way. – Jerome, Letter 130, chapter 18

Go not from home nor visit the daughters of a strange land…. Jesus is jealous. He does not choose that your face should be seen of others. – Jerome, Letter 22, to Eustochium

They go about with heads uncovered in defiance of the apostle’s command. – Jerome, Letter 147, chapter 5

Epiphanius of Salamis (310 – 403 AD):

“So Sarah laughed, being inside” This wishes to indicate her modesty—a model for women who want to be truly pious—so that when they receive strangers, they serve them through their own labors, but on account of modesty, they do not show their face to the men. For that blessed woman surely prepared and, after preparing, was not seen in the presence of angels, providing an example of modesty for later generations. – Epiphanius, Ancoratus, chapter 39.4-39.6

Asterius of Amasea (350 – 410 AD):

And those “good judges,” allies of chastity, ordered that she—modestly veiled in her mantle (for even amid the turmoil of evils she did not forget her habit of modesty)—be stripped of her proper covering…. – Asterius of Amasea, Homily 6.5.5

Augustine (354 – 430 AD):

“A man ought not to veil his head, for so much as he is the image and glory of God.” Now if it is true of a man that he is not to veil his head, then the opposite is true of a woman, that she is to veil her head. – Augustine, On The Holy Trinity, book 12, chapter 7

“Like a veiled woman.” What else can being “veiled” mean but, so to say, hidden and unknown? – Augustine, Sermon 147A, chapter 3

Cyril of Alexandria (376 – 444 AD):

Do you see how the law of nature acts as the arbiter and regulator of each? Boldness is most fitting for men, but for a woman, covering herself is decorous…. Shame adorns her as much as possible as a living creature and crowns her with her hair. For boldness in a woman is not fitting. – Cyril of Alexandria, Patrologia Graeca 74:881

For, falling into sin, we have wrapped the shame of it like a veil about the face of our soul…. In very truth does he loosen us from our former evils, and as it were remove the veil of shame…. – Commentary on John, book 7

Scriptures:

1 Corinthians 11:23 – For I received from the Lord that which I also delivered to you.

1 Corinthians 11:2-16 – Now I praise you because you remember me in everything and hold firmly to the traditions, just as I delivered them to you. But I want you to understand that Christ is the head of every man, and the man is the head of a woman, and God is the head of Christ.

Any man who prays or prophesies with his head covered down (κατὰκεφαλῆς) dishonors his head, but any woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered (ἀκατακαλύπτῳ) dishonors her head—it is the same as if her head were shaven. For if a woman will not cover (κατακαλύπτεται) herself, then she should cut off her hair; but if it is disgraceful for a woman to be shorn or shaven, let her cover (κατακαλυπτέσθω) herself.

For a man ought not to cover (κατακαλύπτεσθαι) his head, since he is the image and glory of God; but woman is the glory of man. For man was not made from woman, but woman from man. Neither was man created for woman, but woman for man. For this reason, a woman is indebted to have a veil (authority) on her head, because of the angels.

Nevertheless, in the Lord woman is not independent of man nor man of woman; for as woman was made from man, so man is now born of woman. And all things are from God. Judge for yourselves; is it proper for a woman to pray to God uncovered (ἀκατακάλυπτον)? Does not nature itself teach you that for a man to have long hair is a shame to him, but if a woman has long hair, it is a glory to her? For her hair is given to her as a covering (περιβολαίου).

But if anyone is inclined to be contentious, we have no such custom, nor do the churches of God.

2 Corinthians 3:12-18 – Therefore having such a hope, we use great boldness in our speech, and are not like Moses, who used to put a veil over his face so that the sons of Israel would not look intently at the outcome of what was fading away. But their minds were hardened; for until this very day at the reading of the old covenant the same veil remains unlifted, because it is removed in Christ. But to this day whenever Moses is read, a veil lies over their heart;but whenever a person turns to the Lord, the veil is taken away. Now the Lord is the Spirit, and where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty. But we all, with unveiled face, beholding as in a mirror the glory of the Lord, are being transformed into the same image from glory to glory, just as from the Lord, the Spirit.

2 Corinthians 4:2-4 – But we have renounced the things hidden because of shame, not walking in craftiness or adulterating the word of God, but by the manifestation of truth commending ourselves to every man’s conscience in the sight of God. And even if our gospel is veiled, it is veiled to those who are perishing, in whose case the god of this world has blinded the minds of the unbelieving so that they might not see the light of the gospel….

WOMEN VEILING IN THE OLD TESTAMENT:

Genesis 24:65 – She said to the servant, “Who is the man who is walking in the field to meet us?” The servant said, “It is my master.” So she took her veil (θεριστρον), and covered herself.

Genesis 38:14-15 – She took off of her the garments of her widowhood, and covered herself with her veil (θεριστρον), and painted her face, and sat in the gate of Enaim, which is by the way to Timnah; for she saw that Shelah was grown up, and she wasn’t given to him as a wife. And when Judas saw her, he thought her to be a harlot; for she covered (κατεκαλύψατο) her face, and he knew her not.

Numbers 5:18: And the priest shall cause the woman to stand before the Lord, and shall uncover (ἀποκαλύψει) the head of the woman, and shall put into her hands the sacrifice of memorial, the sacrifice of jealousy; and in the hand of the priest shall be the water of this conviction that brings the curse.

Song of Songs 1:7 – “Tell me, O you whom my soul loves, where you pasture your flock, where do you make it lie down at noon? For why should I be like one who veils (περιβαλλομένη) herself beside the flocks of your companions?”

Song of Songs 4:1: Behold, you are beautiful, my love. Behold, you are beautiful. Your eyes are doves behind your veil (σιωπήσεώς). Your hair is as a flock of goats that descend from Mount Gilead.

Song of Songs 2:14 – My dove, in the clefts of the rock, in the hidden part of the cliff, show me your face, let me hear your voice; for your voice is sweet, and your face is lovely.

Song of Songs 5:7 – The watchmen that go their rounds in the city found me, they smote me, they wounded me; the keepers of the walls took away my veil (θεριστρον) from me.

Isaiah 47:1-3 – Come down and sit in the dust, O virgin daughter of Babylon; sit on the ground without a throne, O daughter of the Chaldeans! For you shall no more be called tender and delicate. Take the millstones and grind meal; remove (ἀποκάλυψαι) your veil (κατακάλυμμά), uncover your white hairs, make bare the leg, pass through the rivers. Your nakedness shall be uncovered, and your shame shall be seen.

Susanna 1:31 – Now Susanna was a woman of great refinement and beautiful in appearance. As she was veiled (κατακεκαλυμμένη), the lawless men ordered that she uncover her face (ἀποκαλυφθῆναι), so that they might feast their eyes on her beauty.Those who were with her and all who saw her were weeping.

3 Maccabees 4: 5-7:For a multitude of gray-headed old men, sluggish and bent with age, was being led away, forced to march at a swift pace by the violence with which they were driven in such a shameful manner. And young women who had just entered the bridal chamber to share married life exchanged joy for wailing, their myrrh-perfumed hair sprinkled with ashes, and were carried away unveiled (ακαλυπτως), all together raising a lament instead of a wedding song, as they were torn by the harsh treatment of the heathen.

The same Greek word “katakalypto” is used for both the ark’s covering and a woman’s covering in 1 Corinthians 11.

OLD TESTAMENT:

Veiled / Covered

Exodus 26:34 – And you shall screen (κατακαλυπτω) with the veil the ark of the testimony in the holy of holies.

Numbers 4:5 – And when the camp sets forward, Aaron shall come, and his sons, and they shall take down the covering veil, and cover (κατακαλυπτω) the ark of testimony with it.

Exodus 34:30-33 – And when Aaron and all the people of Israel saw Moses, behold, the skin of his face shone, and they were afraid to come near him. But Moses called to them; and Aaron and all the leaders of the congregation returned to him, and Moses talked with them. And afterward all the people of Israel came near, and he gave them in commandment all that the Lord had spoken with him in Mount Sinai. And when Moses had finished speaking with them, he put a veil (κάλυμμα) on his face; but whenever Moses went in before the Lord to speak with him, he took the veil (κάλυμμα) off, until he came out; and when he came out, and told the people of Israel what he was commanded, the people of Israel saw the face of Moses, that the skin of Moses’ face shone; and Moses would put the veil (κάλυμμα) upon his face again, until he went in to speak with him.

Genesis 7:19: The waters prevailed exceedingly on the earth. All the high mountains that were under the whole sky were covered (ἐπεκάλυψεν).

Genesis 7:20: The waters prevailed fifteen cubits upward, and the mountains were covered (επεκαλυψεν).

Exodus 14:26: The Lord said to Moses, “Stretch out your hand over the sea, and let the water restore and cover (ἐπικαλυψάτω) the Egyptians, on their chariots, and the horse riders.

Proverbs 28:13: He who conceals (ἐπικαλύπτων) his sins doesn’t prosper, but whoever confesses and renounces them finds mercy.

Genesis 9:23: Shem and Japheth took a garment, and laid it on both their shoulders, went in backwards, and covered (συνεκάλυψαν) the nakedness of their father. Their faces were backwards, and they didn’t see their father’s nakedness.

Exodus 10:4-5: I will bring forth many locusts over all your borders, and they shall cover (καλύψει) the surface of the earth, so that one won’t be able to see the earth. They shall eat the residue of that which has escaped, which remains to you from the hail, and shall eat every tree which grows for you out of the field.

Numbers 16:33: So they, and all that appertained to them, went down alive into hades: and the earth closed (καλυπτω) on them, and they perished from among the assembly.

Numbers 22:11: Behold this people has come out of Egypt and behold, it covers (κεκάλυφεν) the whole view of the land and has encamped right in front of me, and now come and curse it for me in order that I might be able to smite it and cast it out of this land.'”

1 Kings 21:4: Ahab came into his house sullen and angry because of the word which Naboth the Jezreelite had spoken to him; for he had said, “I will not give you the inheritance of my fathers.” He laid himself down on his bed, and covered (συνεκάλυψεν) his face, and would eat no bread.

Sirach 26:8: A drunken woman causes great wrath. She will not cover (συγκαλύψει) her own shame.

Psalm 32:0-1: Blessed are those whose infringements are forgiven, and whose sins are covered over (ἐπεκαλύφθησαν).

Psalm 44:19: Though you have crushed us in the haunt of jackals, and covered (ἐπεκάλυψεν) us with the shadow of death…

Sirach 39:22: His blessing covered (ἐπεκάλυψεν) the dry land as a river and saturated it as a flood.

Sirach 47:15: Your influence covered (ἐπεκάλυψεν) the earth, and you filled it with parables and riddles.

Jeremiah 3:25: Let us lie down in our shame, and let our disgrace cover (ἐπεκάλυψεν) us; for we have sinned against Yahweh our God, we and our fathers, from our youth even to this day. We have not obeyed the voice of Yahweh our God.”

Exodus 21:33: “If a man opens a pit, or if a man digs a pit and doesn’t cover (καλύψῃ) it, and a bull or a donkey falls into it….”

Ezekiel 32:7: When I shall extinguish you, I will cover (κατακαλύψω) the heavens, and make its stars dark; I will cover (καλύψω) the sun with a cloud, and the moon shall not give its light.

Daniel 12:9: He said, “Go your way, Daniel; for the words are shut up and hidden (κατακεκαλυμμένα) until the time of the end.”

1 Samuel 19:13: Michal took the teraphim, and laid it in the bed, and put a pillow of goats’ hair at its head, and covered (ἐκάλυψεν) it with the clothes.

1 Samuel 28:8: Saul disguised (συνεκάλυψεν) himself, and put on other clothing, and went, he and two men with him, and they came to the woman by night: and he said, “Please divine to me by the familiar spirit, and bring me up whoever I shall name to you.”

1 Kings 19:13: It was so, when Elijah heard it, that he hid (ἐπεκάλυψεν) his face in his sheepskin, and went out, and stood in the entrance of the cave. Behold, a voice came to him, and said, “What are you doing here, Elijah?”

2 Chronicles 18:29: The king of Israel said to Jehoshaphat, “I will disguise (κατακαλύψομαι) myself, and go into the battle; but you put on your robes.” So the king of Israel disguised (συνεκαλύψατο) himself; and they went into the battle.

Sirach 23:18: A man who goes astray from his own marriage bed says in his heart, “Who sees me? Darkness is around me, and the walls hide (καλύπτουσιν) me. No one sees me. Of whom am I afraid? The Most High will not remember my sins.”

Susanna 1:39: And as we approached we recognized her, but the young man fled, covered over (συγκεκαλυμμένος).

NEW TESTAMENT:

Veiled / Covered

Matthew 8:26 – Suddenly a violent storm arose on the sea, so that the boat was being covered (καλύπτεσθαι) by the waves; but He was asleep.

Matthew 10:26 – “Therefore do not be afraid of them; for there is nothing covered (κεκαλυμμένον) that will not be uncovered (ἀποκαλυφθήσεται), and hidden that will not be made known.

Luke 12:2-3 – “For there is nothing covered (συγκεκαλυμμένον) that will not be revealed, nor hidden that will not be known. Therefore whatever you have spoken in the dark will be heard in the light, and what you have spoken in the ear in inner rooms will be proclaimed on the housetops.”

Luke 8:16 – “No one after lighting a lamp covers (καλύπτει) it with a container or puts it under a bed, but places it on a lampstand, so that those who come in may see the light.

Luke 23:30 – Then they will begin to say to the mountains, ‘Fall on us!’ and to the hills, ‘Cover (καλύψατε) us!’

Elsewhere in Revelation, it references the same event in different words.

Revelation 6:15-16 – “Then the kings of the earth and the great men and the generals and the rich and the strong, and every one, slave and free, hid in the caves and among the rocks of the mountains, calling to the mountains and rocks, “Fall on us and hide us from the face of him who is seated on the throne, and from the wrath of the Lamb.”

Luke 9:45 – But they did not understand this saying, and it was hidden (παρακεκαλυμμένον) from them so that they did not perceive it; and they were afraid to ask Him about this saying.

Mark 14:65, Matthew 26:68: And some began to spit on him, and to cover (περικαλύπτειν) his face, and to strike him, saying to him, “Prophesy to us, Christ! Who is the one who hit you?” And the guards received him with blows.

2 Corinthians 4:3 – But even if our gospel is veiled (κεκαλυμμένον), it is veiled (κεκαλυμμένον) only to those who are perishing,

James 5:20 – … He should know that the one who brings a sinner back from the error of his way will save that person’s soul from death and cover (καλύψει) a multitude of sins.

1 Peter 4:8 – Above all, maintain a fervent love among yourselves, for love covers (καλύπτει) a multitude of sins.

Unveiled / Uncovered

Matthew 11:25: At that time, Jesus answered, “I thank you, Father, Lord of heaven and earth, that you hid these things from the wise and understanding, and revealed (ἀπεκάλυψας) them to infants.”

Matthew 16:17: Jesus answered him, “Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah, for flesh and blood has not revealed (ἀπεκάλυψέν) this to you, but my Father who is in heaven.

Luke 17:30: It will be the same way in the day that the Son of Man is revealed (ἀποκαλύπτεται).

1 Corinthians 3:13: The work of each will become visible. For the day will make it plain, because it is revealed (ἀποκαλύπτεται) in fire; and the fire itself will assay what sort the work of each is.

Matthew 11:27: All things have been delivered to me by my Father. No one knows the Son, except the Father; neither does anyone know the Father, except the Son, and he to whom the Son desires to reveal (ἀποκαλύψαι) him.

OLD TESTAMENT:

Unveiled / Uncovered

2 Samuel 6:20: Then David returned to bless his household. Michal the daughter of Saul came out to meet David, and said, “How glorious the king of Israel was today, who uncovered (ἀπεκαλύφθη) himself today in the eyes of the handmaids of his servants, as one of the vain fellows shamelessly uncovers (ἀποκαλυφθεὶς) himself!”

2 Samuel 22:16: Then the channels of the sea appeared (ἀπεκαλύφθη). The foundations of the world were laid bare by the rebuke of Yahweh, at the blast of the breath of his nostrils….

1 Maccabees 7:31: Nicanor found out that his plan was discovered (ἀπεκαλύφθη); and he went out to meet Judas in battle beside Capharsalama.

Ezekiel 22:10: In you have they uncovered (ἀπεκάλυψαν) their fathers’ nakedness; in you have they humbled her who was unclean in her impurity.

Ezekiel 23:10: These uncovered (ἀπεκάλυψαν) her nakedness; they took her sons and her daughters; and her they killed with the sword: and she became a byword among women; for they executed judgments on her.

Genesis 8:13: It happened in the six hundred first year, in the first month, the first day of the month, the waters were dried up from the earth. Noah removed the covering (ἀπεκάλυψεν) of the ship, and looked. He saw that the surface of the ground was dried.

Numbers 22:31: Then God uncovered (ἀπεκάλυψεν) the eyes of Balaam and he saw the angel of The Lord opposing in the way and the sword drawn in his hand and upon stooping down he bowed down his face.

Daniel 2:22: He reveals (ἀποκαλύπτει) the deep and secret things; he knows what is in the darkness, and the light dwells with him.

Sirach 27:16: He who reveals (ἀποκαλύπτων) secrets destroys trust, and will not find a close friend.

Sirach 42:19: He declares the things that are past and the things that shall be, and reveals (ἀποκαλύπτων) the traces of hidden things.

Isaiah 20:4: … So the king of Assyria will lead away the captives of Egypt and the exiles of Ethiopia, young and old, naked and barefoot, and with buttocks uncovered (ἀνακεκαλυμμένους), to the shame of Egypt.

Isaiah 24:1: Behold the Lord is destroying the inhabited world and will make it desolate and will expose (ἀνακαλύψει) its face and scatter the ones dwelling in it.

Isaiah 47:3: Your shamefacedness will be discovered (ἀνακαλυφθήσεται), your reproaches will be made manifest; the just will I take from you and I will no longer hand you over to men.

Jeremiah 13:22: If you say in your heart, “Why are these things come on me?” for the greatness of your iniquity are your skirts uncovered (ἀνεκαλύφθη), and your heels suffer violence.

Jeremiah 49:10: But I have made Esau bare, I have uncovered (ἀνεκάλυψα) his secret places, and he shall not be able to hide himself: his seed is destroyed, and his brothers, and his neighbors; and he is no more.

COVERING THE FACE BECAUSE OF SHAME:

In the Old Testament, men would also cover their heads (not with a yamaka, but an entire head-covering, such as women used), whenever they were feeling deeply ashamed over something. And why should shame make a person want to hide their face, you ask? For the same reason Adam and Eve hid from God after they had sinned, every person who is ashamed wishes to conceal themselves from the sight of others. You see this whenever a person gets arrested and has cameras pointed at them: they cover their face, because it’s natural to flee the sight of the public when you’re feeling low and humiliated.

2 Samuel 15:30: David went up by the ascent of the Mount of Olives, and wept as he went up; and he had his head covered (ἐπικεκαλυμμένος), and went barefoot: and all the people who were with him covered (ἐπεκάλυψεν) every man his head, and they went up, weeping as they went up.

Jeremiah 14:3–4: [Judah mourns,] and their nobles send their lads for water: they come to the pits, and find no water; their vessels return empty; they are ashamed and disgraced, and cover their heads. Because of the ground which is cracked, for there has been no rain in the land, the plowmen are ashamed, they cover (επικαλυπτω) their heads.

Esther 6:12: And Mordecai returned to the palace, but Hamaan went home mourning, and having his head covered (κατακεκαλυμμένος).

Tobit 2:9: On the same night I returned from burying him, and because I was defiled I slept by the wall of the courtyard, and my face was uncovered (ἀκάλυπτον / ἀνακεκαλυμμένον).

Psalm 69:7: Because for your sake, I have borne reproach. Shame has covered (ἐκάλυψεν) my face.

Job 9:24: The earth is given into the hand of the wicked. He covers (συγκαλύπτει) the faces of its judges. If not he, then who is it?

Ezekiel 12:6: In their sight you shall bear it on your shoulder, and carry it forth in the dark; you shall cover (συγκαλύψεις) your face, so that you don’t see the land: for I have set you for a sign to the house of Israel.

Isaiah 29:22: Because of this, thus says The Lord upon the house of Jacob which He set apart out of Abraham “Jacob will no longer be ashamed and neither will the face of Israel be turned away any longer.”

Jeremiah 51:51: We are ashamed, because we have heard reproach; disgrace has covered (κατεκάλυψεν) our faces: for strangers are come into the sanctuaries of Yahweh’s house.

Ezra 9:6: And I said, “My God, I am ashamed and blush to lift up my face to you, my God; for our iniquities have increased over our head, and our guiltiness has grown up to the heavens.

Isaiah 50:6-7: I gave my back to scourges, and my cheeks to blows; and I turned not away my face from the shame of spitting. The Lord God became my helper; therefore I was not ashamed, but I set my face as a solid rock; and I know that I shall never be ashamed.

Jeremiah 2:26: Like the shamefacedness of the thief when caught, thus will the sons of Israel be put to shame, they and their kings and their rulers and their priests and their prophets.

3 Maccabees 1:18-19 – The virgins who had been enclosed in their chambers rushed out with their mothers, sprinkled their hair with dust, and filled the streets with groans and lamentations. Those women who had recently been arrayed for marriage abandoned the bridal chambers prepared for wedded union, and, neglecting proper shamefacedness, in a disorderly rush flocked together in the city.

1 Timothy 2:9 – In like manner, women should adorn themselves in modest apparel, with shamefacedness and sobriety; not with braided hair, and gold or pearls or costly raiment.

1 Corinthians 14:34-35 – The women should keep silent in the churches. For they are not permitted to speak, but should be in submission, as the Law also says

1 Peter 3:1-6: Your adornment must not be external—braiding the hair, and wearing gold jewelry, or putting on beautiful clothes; but the hidden person of the heart, with the imperishable quality of a gentle and quiet spirit, which is precious in the sight of God.For in this way in former times the holy women also, who hoped in God, used to adorn themselves, being submissive to their own husbands.

CHURCH FATHERS:

Shepherd of Hermas (85-90 AD):

Now after I had passed by the wild beast, and had moved forward about thirty feet, lo! A virgin meets me, adorned as if she were proceeding from the bridal chamber, clothed entirely in white, and with white sandals, and veiled (κατακεκαλυμμένη) up to her forehead, and her head was covered by a hood (κατακάλυψις). And she had white hair. I knew from my former visions that this was the Church, and I became more joyful. – Shepherd of Hermas, Vision 4, chapter 1

Irenaeus (130 – 202 AD):

[Referring to a Gnostic belief]: Again, the coming of the Saviour with His attendants to Achamoth is declared in like manner by him in the same Epistle, when he says, “A woman ought to have a veil (καλυμμα) upon her head, because of the angels.” Now, that Achamoth, when the Saviour came to her, drew a veil over herself through modesty, Moses rendered manifest when he put a veil upon his face. – Against Heresies (Book I, Chapter 8)

Clement of Alexandria (150 – 215 AD):

Woman and man are to go to church decently attired, with natural step, embracing silence, possessing unfeigned love, pure in body, pure in heart, fit to pray to God. Let the woman observe this, further. Let her be entirely covered (κεκαλύφθω), unless she happen to be at home. For that style of dress is grave, and protects from being gazed at. And she will never fall, who puts before her eyes modesty, and her shawl; nor will she invite another to fall into sin by uncovering her face (τὸ πρόσωπον ἀπογυμνοῦσα). For this is the wish of the Word, since it is becoming for her to pray veiled (ἐγκεκαλυμμένῃ). They say that the wife of Æneas, through excess of propriety, did not, even in her terror at the capture of Troy, uncover (ἀποκαλύψασθαι) herself; but, though fleeing from the conflagration, remained veiled (ἐγκεκαλυμμένῃ). – Instructor of Children, book 3, chapter 11

And if this is the object of clothing, see that one kind be not assigned to men and another to women. For it is common to both to be covered, as it is to eat and drink. The necessity, then, being common, we judge that the provision ought to be similar. For as it is common to both to require things to cover them, so also their coverings ought to be similar; although such a covering ought to be assumed as is requisite for covering the eyes of women. For if the female sex, on account of their weakness, desire more, we ought to blame the habit of that evil training, by which often men reared up in bad habits become more effeminate than women. But this must not be yielded to. And if some accommodation is to be made, they may be permitted to use softer clothes, provided they put out of the way fabrics foolishly thin, and of curious texture in weaving; bidding farewell to embroidery of gold and Indian silks and elaborate Bombyces (silks) – Instructor of Children, book 2, chapter 11

As, then, in the fashioning of our clothes, we must keep clear of all strangeness, so in the use of them we must beware of extravagance. For neither is it seemly for the clothes to be above the knee, as they say was the case with the Lacedæmonian virgins; nor is it becoming for any part of a woman to be exposed. Though you may with great propriety use the language addressed to him who said, Your arm is beautiful; yes, but it is not for the public gaze. Your thighs are beautiful; but, was the reply, for my husband alone. And your face is comely. Yes; but only for him who has married me. But I do not wish chaste women to afford cause for such praises to those who, by praises, hunt after grounds of censure; and not only because it is prohibited to expose the ankle, but because it has also been commanded that the head should be veiled and the face covered; for it is a wicked thing for beauty to be a snare to men. Nor is it seemly for a woman to wish to make herself conspicuous by using a purple veil. – Instructor of Children, book 2, chapter 11

Women fond of display act in the same manner with regard to shoes, showing also in this matter great luxuriousness. Base, in truth, are those sandals on which golden ornaments are fastened…. Farewell, therefore, must be bidden to gold-plated and jewelled mischievous devices of sandals, and Attic and Sicyonian half-boots, and Persian and Tyrrhenian buskins…. For the use of shoes is partly for covering, partly for defense in case of stumbling against objects, and for saving the sole of the foot from the roughness of hilly paths…. Further, they ought for the most part to wear shoes; for it is not suitable for the foot to be shown naked: besides, woman is a tender thing, easily hurt. – Instructor of Children, book 2, chapter 12

Not to deck and adorn herself beyond what is becoming, renders a wife free of calumnious suspicion, while she devotes herself assiduously to prayers and supplications; avoiding frequent departures from the house, and shutting herself up as far as possible from the view of all not related to her, and deeming housekeeping of more consequence than impertinent trifling. – Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata, Book 2, chapter 23

“Because of the angels.” By the angels he means righteous and virtuous men. Let her be veiled then, that she may not lead them to stumble into fornication. For the real angels in heaven see her though veiled. – Fragments of Clement of Alexandria IV.— From the Books of the Hypotyposes, Œcumenius from Book III. On 1 Cor. xi. 10)

Tertullian (155 – 220 AD):

Demanding then a law of God, you have that common one prevailing all over the world, engraved on the natural tables to which the apostle too is wont to appeal, as when in respect of the woman’s veil he says, “Does not even Nature teach you?” – as when to the Romans, affirming that the heathen do by nature those things which the law requires, he suggests both natural law and a law-revealing nature. – Tertullian, De Corona (The Chaplet), chapter 6

Christ is the Head of the Christian man – (for his head) is as free as even Christ is, under no obligation to wear a covering, not to say a crown. But even the head which is bound to have the veil, I mean woman’s, as already taken possession of by this very thing, is not open also to a crown. She has the burden of her own humility to bear. – Tertullian, De Corona (The Chaplet), chapter 14

But that point which is promiscuously observed throughout the churches, whether virgins ought to be veiled or no, must be treated of. For they who allow to virgins immunity from head-covering, appear to rest on this; that the apostle has not defined “virgins” by name, but “women,” as “to be veiled;” – Tertullian, On Prayer, chapter 21

“Every woman,” said he, “praying and prophesying with head uncovered, dishonors her own head.” What is “every woman”, but woman of every age, of every rank, of every condition? As, then, in the masculine sex, under the name of “man” even the “youth” is forbidden to be veiled; so, too, in the feminine, under the name of “woman,” even the “virgin” is bidden to be veiled… For indeed it is “on account of the angels” that he said women must be veiled, because on account of “the daughters of men” angels revolted from God. Who then, would contend that “women” alone – that is, such as were already wedded and had lost their virginity – were the objects of angelic concupiscence, unless “virgins” are incapable of excelling in beauty and finding lovers? … This custom [i.e. of the “universal veiling of women”], in short, even Israel observes; but if Israel did not observe it, our Law [i.e. the Sermon on the Mount] amplified and supplemented, would vindicate the addition for itself; let it be excused for imposing the veil on virgins also. – Tertullian, On Prayer, chapter 22

He adds: “Because of the angels.” What angels? In other words, whose angels? If he means the fallen angels of the Creator, there is great propriety in his meaning. It is right that that face which was a snare to them should wear some mark of a humble guise and obscured beauty. – Tertullian, Against Marcion, Book 5, chapter 8

Let her, then, maintain the character wholly, and perform the whole function of a “virgin:” what she conceals for the sake of God, let her cover quite over…. Why do you denude before God what you cover before men? Will you be more modest in public than in the church? Be veiled, virgin, if virgin you are; for you ought to blush. If you are a virgin, shrink from (the gaze of) many eyes. Let no one wonder at your face; let no one perceive your falsehood. – Tertullian, On Prayer, chapter 22

Nay, but true and absolute and pure virginity fears nothing more than itself. Even female eyes it shrinks from encountering. Other eyes itself has. It betakes itself for refuge to the veil of the head as to a helmet, as to a shield, to protect its glory against the blows of temptations, against the dam of scandals, against suspicions and whispers and emulation; (against) envy also itself.- Tertullian, On the Veiling of Virgins, chapter 15

The more holy virgin, accordingly, will fear, even under the name of fascination, on the one hand the adversary, on the other God, the envious disposition of the former, the censorial light of the latter; and will joy in being known to herself alone and to God. But even if she has been recognized by any other, she is wise to have blocked up the pathway against temptations. For who will have the audacity to intrude with his eyes upon a shrouded face? A face without feeling? A face, so to say, morose? Any evil cogitation whatsoever will be broken by the very severity. – Tertullian, On the Veiling of Virgins, chapter 15

Nay, rather banish quite away from your “free” head all this slavery of ornamentation. In vain do you labor to seem adorned: in vain do you call in the aid of all the most skillful manufacturers of false hair. God bids you “be veiled.” I believe (He does so) for fear the heads of some should be seen! – Tertullian, On the Apparel of Women, book 2, chapter 7

So perilous a face, then, ought to be hidden (adumbrari), which has cast stumbling-stones even so far as heaven: that, when standing in the presence of God, at whose bar it stands accused of the driving of the angels from their (native) confines, it may blush before the other angels as well; and may repress that former evil liberty of its head —(a liberty) now to be exhibited not even before human eyes. – Tertullian, On the Veiling of Virgins, chapter 7

If, moreover, the apostle further adds the prejudgment of nature, that redundancy of locks is an honour to a woman, because hair serves for a covering, of course it is most of all to a virgin that this is a distinction; for their very adornment properly consists in this, that, by being massed together upon the crown, it wholly covers the very citadel of the head with an encirclement of hair. – Tertullian, On the Veiling of Virgins, chapter 7

It behooves our virgins to be veiled from the time that they have passed the turning-point of their age: that this observance is exacted by truth, on which no one can impose prescription – no space of times, no influence of persons, no privilege of regions. – Tertullian, On The Veiling of Virgins, chapter 1

Throughout Greece, and certain of its barbaric provinces, the majority of Churches keep their virgins covered. There are places, too, beneath this (African) sky, where this practice obtains; lest any ascribe the custom to Greek or barbarian Gentilehood. But I have proposed (as models) those Churches which were founded by apostles or apostolic men…. Those Churches therefore, as well (as others), have the self-same authority of custom (to appeal to)… let me say it once for all, we are one Church. Thus, whatever belongs to our brethren is ours: only, the body divides us. Still, here (as generally happens in all cases of various practice, of doubt, and of uncertainty), examination ought to have been made to see which of two so diverse customs were the more compatible with the discipline of God. And, of course, that ought to have been chosen which keeps virgins veiled, as being known to God alone…. For that custom which belies virgins while it exhibits them, would never have been approved by any except by some men who must have been similar in character to the virgins themselves. Such eyes will wish that a virgin be seen as has the virgin who shall wish to be seen. The same kinds of eyes reciprocally crave after each other. Seeing and being seen belong to the self-same lust. To blush if he see a virgin is as much a mark of a chaste man, as of a chaste virgin if seen by a man. – Tertullian, On The Veiling of Virgins, chapter 2

The virgins of men go about, in opposition to the virgins of God, with front quite bare, excited to a rash audacity…. “We are scandalized,” they say, “because others walk otherwise (than we do);” and they prefer being scandalized to being provoked (to modesty). A scandal, if I mistake not, is an example not of a good thing, but of a bad, tending to sinful edification. Good things scandalize none but an evil mind. If modesty, if bashfulness, if contempt of glory, anxious to please God alone, are good things, let women who are scandalized by such good learn to acknowledge their own evil…. Are therefore chaste virgins to be, for the sake of these marketable creatures, dragged into the church, blushing at being recognised in public, quaking at being unveiled, as if they had been invited as it were to rape? For they are no less unwilling to suffer even this. Every public exposure of an honourable virgin is a suffering of rape: and yet the suffering of carnal violence is the less (evil), because it comes of natural office. But when the very spirit itself is violated in a virgin by the abstraction of her covering, she has learnt to lose what she used to keep. O sacrilegious hands, which have had the hardihood to drag off a dress dedicated to God! What worse could any persecutor have done, if he had known that this (garb) had been chosen by a virgin? You have denuded a maiden in regard of her head, and forthwith she wholly ceases to be a virgin to herself; she has undergone a change! – Tertullian, On The Veiling of Virgins, chapter 2

“If any,” he says, “is contentious, we have not such a custom, nor (has) the Church of God.”… So, too, did the Corinthians themselves understand him. In fact, at this day the Corinthians do veil their virgins. What the apostles taught, their disciples approve. – Tertullian, On The Veiling of Virgins, chapter 8

But even if it is “on account of the angels” that she is to be veiled, doubtless the age from which the law of the veil will come into operation will be that from which “the daughters of men” were able to invite concupiscence of their persons, and to experience marriage. – Tertullian, On The Veiling of Virgins, chapter 11

If on account of men they adopt a false garb, let them carry out that garb fully even for that end; and as they veil their head in presence of heathens, let them at all events in the church conceal their virginity, which they do veil outside the church. They fear strangers: let them stand in awe of the brethren too; or else let them have the consistent hardihood to appear as virgins in the streets as well, as they have the hardihood to do in the churches…. To what purpose, then, do they thrust their glory out of sight abroad, but expose it in the church? I demand a reason. Is it to please the brethren, or God Himself? – Tertullian, On The Veiling of Virgins, chapter 13

I pray you, be you mother, or sister, or virgin-daughter — let me address you according to the names proper to your years — veil your head: if a mother, for your sons’ sakes; if a sister, for your brethren’s sakes; if a daughter for your fathers’ sakes. All ages are perilled in your person. Put on the panoply of modesty; surround yourself with the stockade of bashfulness; rear a rampart for your sex, which must neither allow your own eyes to wander out nor others to intrude in. Wear the full garb of woman, to preserve the standing of virgin. – Tertullian, On The Veiling of Virgins, chapter 16

But we admonish you, too, women of the second (degree of) modesty, who have fallen into wedlock, not to outgrow so far the discipline of the veil, not even in a moment of an hour, as, because you cannot refuse it, to take some other means to nullify it, by going neither covered nor bare. For some, with their turbans and woollen bands, do not veil their head, but bind it up; protected, indeed, in front, but, where the head properly lies, bare. Others are to a certain extent covered over the region of the brain with linen coifs of small dimensions — I suppose for fear of pressing the head — and not reaching quite to the ears. If they are so weak in their hearing as not to be able to hear through a covering, I pity them. Let them know that the whole head constitutes the woman. Its limits and boundaries reach as far as the place where the robe begins. The region of the veil is co-extensive with the space covered by the hair when unbound; in order that the necks too may be encircled.

For it is they which must be subjected, for the sake of which power ought to be had on the head: the veil is their yoke. Arabia’s heathen females will be your judges, who cover not only the head, but the face also, so entirely, that they are content, with one eye free, to enjoy rather half the light than to prostitute the entire face.

To us the Lord has, even by revelations, measured the space for the veil to extend over. For a certain sister of ours was thus addressed by an angel, beating her neck, as if in applause: “Elegant neck, and deservedly bare! It is well for you to unveil yourself from the head right down to the loins, lest withal this freedom of your neck profit you not!” And, of course, what you have said to one you have said to all. But how severe a chastisement will they likewise deserve, who, amid (the recital of) the Psalms, and at any mention of (the name of) God, continue uncovered; (who) even when about to spend time in prayer itself, with the utmost readiness place a fringe, or a tuft, or any thread whatever, on the crown of their heads, and suppose themselves to be covered? – Tertullian, On The Veiling of Virgins, chapter 17

“Of so small extent do they falsely imagine their head to be! Others, who think the palm of their hand plainly greater than any fringe or thread, misuse their head no less; like a certain (creature), more beast than bird, albeit winged, with small head, long legs, and moreover of erect carriage. She, they say, when she has to hide, thrusts away into a thicket her head alone — plainly the whole of it, (though)— leaving all the rest of herself exposed. Thus, while she is secure in head, (but) bare in her larger parts, she is taken wholly, head and all. Such will be their plight withal, covered as they are less than is useful. – Tertullian, On The Veiling of Virgins, chapter 17

So completely has Paul by naming the sex generally mingled daughters and species together in the genus. Again, while he says that nature herself, which has assigned hair as a tegument and ornament to women, teaches that veiling is the duty of females, has not the same tegument and the same honour of the head been assigned also to virgins? – Tertullian, On Prayer, chapter 22

If you were to demand the law for this and other disciplines of this sort, you will find no laws in the Scriptures. Tradition will be put forward to you as the originator, custom as its confirmer, and faith as its observer. You will either figure out for yourself the reasoning that defends tradition, custom, and faith, or you will learn it from someone who has figured it out. In the meantime, you will believe that there is some authority that deserves your obedience. I add one more example, so that it will be appropriate to teach from the ancients as well. Among the Jews, it is so customary for their women to wear a veil that they are recognized by it. I ask for the law; I point to the Apostle [Paul]. If Rebecca, upon seeing her bridegroom from a distance, grabbed her veil, a private sense of modesty could not create a law. Or, if she did it for her own reasons, then only virgins should be covered, and only those coming to be married, and not before they have met their bridegrooms. If Susanna, unveiled at her trial, provides evidence for veiling, I can say: “And this veil was also a matter of her own choice.” She had come as a defendant, blushing from the shame of the accusation against her, rightly hiding her beauty, or because she was afraid of being attractive. Besides, I wouldn’t think that a woman who was pleasing [to others] walked around veiled in her own husband’s presence. Even if she was veiled then, I still look for a law for this practice, either in her case or in the case of any other woman. If I find the law nowhere, it follows that tradition gave custom this practice, a practice which would someday gain the Apostle’s authority through the interpretation of its rationale. Therefore, by these examples, it will have been shown that even an unwritten tradition can be defended as an observance, since it is confirmed by custom—which is a reliable witness of a proven tradition, as shown by its persistent observance.– Tertullian, The Chaplet, Chapter 4

Now I turn to you (women) directly—so that you’ll embrace this all the more. I beg you—whether you are a mother, a sister, or a virgin daughter—veil your head: if you are a mother, do it for your sons; if a sister, for your brothers; if a daughter, for your fathers. In you, every age finds itself in danger. Put on the armor of modesty; encircle yourself with the wall of shamefacedness; build a wall for your sex that lets none of your own glances go out nor admits others in. Fulfill the appearance of a woman, so that you may preserve the honor of a virgin. Conceal some of what is within you, so that you show the truth only to God—though in doing this you are not lying by pretending to be married, for you have been married to Christ. To Him you have given your body, to Him you have pledged your womanhood. Walk according to the will of your Bridegroom. It is Christ who commands even other men’s brides and wives to be veiled—how much more, then, His own? — Tertullian, On the Veiling of Virgins chapter 16

Origen of Alexandria (185 – 253 AD):

Tell me, you whom my soul loves, where you tend your flock, where you cause them to rest at noon, lest I become as one that is veiled by the flocks of your companions. – Song of Songs 1:7

The Bride asks her Bridegroom to show her the place of His private retreat and rest, because, being impatient for love, she longs to go to him, even through the noonday heat – that is, at the particular time when the light is brighter and the splendor of the day perfect and pure – so that she may be near Him, as He feeds or refreshes His sheep, And she earnestly desires to learn the way by which she ought to go to Him, lest perchance, if she have not been taught the windings of this way, she should come upon the companions’ flocks and resemble one of those who come veiled to His companions; and, having no care for modesty, she should fear not to run here and there and to be seen by many people. ‘But I,’ she says, ‘who would prefer to be seen by no one but you only, desire to know by what road I may come to you, that it may be a secret, that none may come between us, and that no vagrant, strange onlooker may fall in with us.’ – Homilies on Song of Songs, Book 2, chapter 4

After this, speaking as though the Bride were veiled and covered for the sake of reverence, the Bridegroom asks her, when she comes to that place which He has just specified as being more secluded, to lay aside her veil and show her face to Him. – Song of Songs, Book 3, chapter 15

She walks thus veiled and covered, however, because she ought to have a power over her head, because of the angels. But when she has reached the outwork place, that is, the state of the age to come, there He says to her: ‘show me your face, and let me hear your voice; for your voice is sweet.’ – Song of Songs, Book 3, chapter 15

Who among us, do you think, is worthy to attain the midday, and to see where the Bridegroom feeds and where He lies at noon? ‘Tell me, you whom my soul has loved, where You feed, where You lie in the midday.’ For, unless You tell me, I shall begin to be a vagrant, driven to and fro; while I am looking for You, I shall begin to run after other people’s flocks and, because these other people make me feel ashamed, I shall begin to cover my face and my mouth. I am the beautiful Bride in sooth, and I do not show my naked face to anyone except you only, whom I kissed tenderly but now. Tell me, You whom my soul has loved, where You feed, where You lie in the midday, lest I have to go veiled beside the flocks of your companions.’ That I suffer not these things – that I may need not to go veiled nor hide my face; that, mixing with others, I run not the risk of beginning to love also them whom I know not. Tell me, therefore, where I may seek and find You in the midday, ‘lest I have to go veiled beside the flocks of Your companions.’ – Song of Songs, Homily 1, chapter 8

On account of the veil, if the Old Testament is read, he who hears will not understand. Also on account of the veil, the Gospel is hidden to those who are lost. Hence we say about the veil that shame is the veil. For insofar as we have the works of shame, it is clear that we possess the veil, according to the forty-third Psalm: “And the shame of my face veiled me.” I have set forth that he who does not have the works of shame does not have a veil, which was just what Paul says: “But we all with an unveiled face behold the glory of the Lord.” Thus Paul has an unveiled face. For he does not have the works of shame. He who is not like Paul has a veiled face. – Commentary on Jeremiah, Homily 5, chapter 8

“Woe,” he says, namely “to those who sew pillows under every elbow of the hands” or “of the hand, and make cloths for veiling the head of every age.” It follows that the one who has this sin also makes “cloths for veiling the head of every age” [Ezek 13:18]. Let us also more carefully consider of what the veil is a figure. The man who has confidence and is truly a man wears no veil upon his head. Instead, he prays to God with his head uncovered, he prophesies with head uncovered. In a hidden way he manifests his spiritual reality by the sign of his bodily attire. Just as he has no veil over his physical head, so he has no veil over the master faculty of his heart. But whoever does the deeds of shame and of sin, he, so to speak, wears womanish veils upon his head. Well, the prophet could have said: On the sons of your people who prophesy. But, as though all who weave veils and sew pillows under every elbow of the hand are women, and none of them deserves the name of man, the prophet says: “On the daughters of your people who prophesy out of their own heart,” and do the things that follow. Effeminate indeed are the souls and wills of their teachers, who are ever putting together fine-sounding and melodious speeches. It is these women, then, who with craft and cunning patch word to word, sewing rather than weaving. They make pillows for the repose not of the head but of the elbow, that is, so that the hands may not be at work or grow weary in labor but be at rest, be at ease, be occupied in those actions that serve our pleasures. But what else follows? “And I will tear up the veils” [Ezek 13:21]. What does he testify that he is going to tear up? Not only the pillows but the veils as well. Now the reason he is going to tear them up is so that the head may become bare. In this way, with assured confidence and with not only the face uncovered but also the head, the man of the church will be able constantly to pray. “I will tear up your veils, and I will deliver my people out of your hand” [Ezek 13:21]. Though you subvert the souls with pillows and veils, I, by tearing up these things, will deliver my people. Now God delivers the people by means of a severe way of life that withdraws them from pleasures. “And they will no longer be in your hands for subversion” – Commentary on Ezekiel, Homily 3, chapter 2-3

We have often said that the opposing powers love the beauty of the human soul and, when a human soul receives the seed of her lovers, in some way she commits fornication with them. But because even in the common life there are certain prostitutes who commit fornication with shame, desiring to be unnoticed, but others who not only do not veil their transgressions with shame but prostitute themselves with all shamelessness, therefore for this sinful Jerusalem he has taken the example of a soul of a prostitute. And he says that in her fornication she has become like a shameless prostitute. Often such things are committed even by us. For those who have not completely withdrawn from religion but are conquered by sin and want to remain unnoticed in their sinning are acting like a blushing prostitute. But those who are completely turned away from religion to such an extent that they don’t care about the bishop, the priests, the deacons, or the brethren, but sin with all shamelessness, are like the prostitute who prostitutes herself with effrontery. – Commentary on Ezekiel, Homily 8, chapter 3

Hippolytus (170 – 235 AD):

“Now Susannah was a very beautiful woman.” This does not mean that she had the beauty of a prostitute’s body or eyes painted with various kinds of makeup— as Jezebel had. Rather, it means she had the adornment of faith, chastity, and holiness. “The lawless ones commanded her to be unveiled (for she was covered), in order that they may be filled with her beauty.” Let us consider, beloved, of what evil this action was. For while the apostle said, “A woman ought to have a veil upon her head on account of the angels,” these men did the opposite, they commanded that she be unveiled in front of the people and at this they were not ashamed. – Hippolytus, Commentary on Daniel, Book 1, chapters 26.3-26.4

Hippolytus says the veil worn by Susanna was the kind of adornment required of ALL women.

When the teacher finishes his instruction, the catechumens shall pray by themselves, apart from the believers. And [all] women, whether believers or catechumens, shall stand for their prayers by themselves in a separate part of the church. And when [the catechumens] finish their prayers, they must not give the kiss of peace, for their kiss is not yet pure. Only believers shall salute one another, but men with men and women with women; a man shall not salute a woman. And let all the women have their heads covered with an opaque cloth, not with a veil of thin linen, for this is not a true covering. – Apostolic Tradition, chapter 18

Although this book which goes under the name of Hippolytus is doubted to have been written by the real Hippolytus, its late date (336-340 A.D) only confirms that the practice of face-veiling continued throughout the centuries, as it specifically commands the veiling of women’s faces in the heading of Canon 17, which is found within the text itself:

Canon Seventeenth – Of a free-born woman, and her duties, of midwives, and of the separation of men from women, of virgins, that they should cover their faces and their heads:

A free woman is not to wear jewellery in church, even if it is a custom sanctioned by her husband. She is not to leave her hair loose, that is waving, in the house of God. She is not to wear fringes on the head when she wishes to partake of the holy mysteries. She is not to give her children, she who has borne them, to nurses, But she is to raise them herself according to the law of marriage. She is not to neglect her housework. She is not to answer her husband back in anything, even if she knows more than he, but she is to remember God at all times; and [if] she knows more than men, she is not to reveal [it] to anyone, but she is to serve her husband like a master. She is to concern herself with the poor, her neighbours; she is to concern herself with the first offerings, in place of a vain adorning, because you will not find a woman adorned with precious stones as beautiful as one like this who is beautiful in her nature and excellence alone. Let this make them careful to be pure and not love pleasure; they are not to be inclined to laugh and are not to talk at all in church, because the house of God is not a place for talk but a place of prayer and reverence. Anyone who talks in church is to be expelled and is not to partake that time of the mysteries…. The women are to be separated in a place. They are not to give the kiss to any man. The girls, when the degree of their youth is accomplished, are to cover the head, like the adult women, with their shawl, not with a thin cloth. – The Canons of Hippolytus, Canon 17

The reason why these canons were written was because some heretics had contradicted some of these teachings. Obviously some of them were saying only MARRIED women need to veil themselves, which is why Hippolytus flatly decrees that virgins must be veiled as well, as was traditionally practiced from the beginning.

Commodianus (250 AD):

You wish, O Christian woman, that the matrons should be as the ladies of the world. You surround yourself with gold, or with the modest silken garment. You give the terror of the law from your ears to the wind. You affect vanity with all the pomp of the devil. You are adorned at the looking-glass with your curled hair turned back from your brow. And moreover, with evil purposes, you put on false medicaments, on your pure eyes the stibium, with painted beauty, or you dye your hair that it may be always black. God is the overlooker, who dives into each heart. But these things are not necessary for modest women. Pierce your breast with chaste and modest feeling. The law of God bears witness that such laws fail from the heart which believes; to a wife approved of her husband, let it suffice that she is so, not by her dress, but by her good disposition. To put on clothes which the cold and the heat or too much sun demands, only that you may be approved modest, and show forth the gifts of your capacity among the people of God. You who were formerly most illustrious, give to yourself the guise of one who is contemptible. She who lay without life, was raised by the prayers of the widows. She deserved this, that she should be raised from death, not by her costly dress, but by her gifts. O good matrons, flee from the adornment of vanity; such attire is fitting for women who haunt the brothels. Overcome the evil one, O modest women of Christ. Show forth all your wealth in giving. – Writings, Chapter 59

Hear my voice, you who wish to remain a Christian woman, in what way the blessed Paul commands you to be adorned. Isaiah, moreover, the teacher and author that spoke from heaven, for he detests those who follow the wickedness of the world, says: “The daughters of Zion that are lifted up shall be brought low.” It is not right in God that a faithful Christian woman should be adorned. Do you seek to go forth after the fashion of the Gentiles, O you who are consecrated to God? God’s heralds, crying aloud in the law, condemn such to be unrighteous women, who in such wise adorn themselves. You stain your hair; you paint the opening of your eyes with black; you lift up your pretty hair one by one on your painted brow; you anoint your cheeks with some sort of ruddy color laid on; and, moreover, earrings hang down with very heavy weight. You bury your neck with necklaces; with gems and gold you bind hands worthy of God with an evil presage. Why should I tell of your dresses, or of the whole pomp of the devil? You are rejecting the law when you wish to please the world. You dance in your houses; instead of psalms, you sing love songs. You, although you may be chaste, do not prove yourself so by following evil things. Christ therefore makes you, such as you are, equal with the Gentiles. Be pleasing to the hymned chorus, and to an appeased Christ with ardent love fervently offer your savour to Christ. – Writings, Chapter 60

Cyprian of Carthage (210 – 258 AD):

But not less from a different direction arises to us another similar instance of chastity from the continence of women. Susanna, as we read, the daughter of Chelcias, the wife of Joachim, was exceedingly beautiful—more beautiful still in character. Her outward appearance added no charm to her, for she was simple: chastity had cultivated her; and in addition to chastity nature alone. With her, two of the elders had begun to be madly in love, mindful of nothing, neither of the fear of God, nor even of their age, already withering with years. Thus the flame of resuscitated lust recalled them into the glowing heats of their bygone youth. Robbers of chastity, they profess love, while they really hate. – Cyprian of Carthage, Of the Discipline and Advantage of Chastity, chapter 9

She is not a modest woman who strives to stir up the fancy of another, even although her bodily chastity be preserved. Away with such as do not adorn, but prostitute their beauty. For anxiety about beauty is not only the wisdom of an evil mind, but belongs to deformity. Let the bodily nature be free, nor let any sort of force be intruded upon God’s works. She is always wretched who is not satisfied to be such as she is. Wherefore is the colour of hair changed? Why are the edges of the eyes darkened? Why is the face moulded by art into a different form? Finally, why is the looking-glass consulted, unless from fear lest a woman should be herself? Moreover, the dress of a modest woman should be modest; a believer should not be conscious of adultery even in the mixture of colours. To wear gold in one’s garments is as if it were desirable to corrupt one’s garments. What do rigid metals do among the delicate threads of the woven textures, except to press upon the enervated shoulders, and unhappily to show the extravagance of a boastful soul? Why are the necks oppressed and hidden by outlandish stones, the prices of which, without workmanship, exceed the entire fortune of many a one? It is not the woman that is adorned, but the woman’s vices that are manifested. What, when the fingers laden with so much gold can neither close nor open, is there any advantage sought for, or is it merely to show the empty parade of one’s estate? – Cyprian of Carthage, Of the Discipline and Advantage of Chastity, chapter 12

Let not curiosity be indulged in scanning other people’s countenances. Let one’s speech be brief, and one’s laughter moderate, for laughter is the sign of an easy and a negligent disposition; and let all contact, even that which is becoming, be avoided. – Cyprian of Carthage, Of the Discipline and Advantage of Chastity, chapter 13

You call yourself wealthy and rich; but Paul meets your riches, and with his own voice prescribes for the moderating of your dress and ornament within a just limit. “Let women,” said he, “adorn themselves with shamefacedness and sobriety, not with broidered hair, nor gold, nor pearls, nor costly array, but as becomes women professing chastity, with a good conversation.” Also Peter consents to these same precepts, and says, “Let there be in the woman not the outward adorning of array, or gold, or apparel, but the adorning of the heart.” …For the rest, if you dress your hair sumptuously, and walk so as to draw attention in public, and attract the eyes of youth upon you, and draw the sighs of young men after you, nourish the lust of concupiscence, and inflame the fuel of sighs, so that, although you yourself perish not, yet you cause others to perish, and offer yourself, as it were, a sword or poison to the spectators; you cannot be excused on the pretense that you are chaste and modest in mind. Your shameful dress and immodest ornament accuse you; nor can you be counted now among Christ’s maidens and virgins, since you live in such a manner as to make yourselves objects of desire. – Treatise 2, chapter 9

The characteristics of ornaments, and of garments, and the allurements of beauty, are not fitting for any but prostitutes and immodest women; and the dress of none is more precious than of those whose modesty is lowly. Thus in the Holy Scriptures, by which the Lord wished us to be both instructed and admonished, the harlot city is described more beautifully arrayed and adorned, and with her ornaments; and the rather on account of those very ornaments about to perish. And there came, it is said, one of the seven angels, which had the seven phials, and talked with me, saying, Come hither, I will show you the judgment of the great whore, that sits upon many waters, with whom the kings of the earth have committed fornication. And he carried me away in spirit; and I saw a woman sit upon a beast, and that woman was arrayed in a purple and scarlet mantle, and was adorned with gold, and precious stones, and pearls, having a golden cup in her hand, full of curses, and filthiness, and fornication of the whole earth. Let chaste and modest virgins avoid the dress of the unchaste, the manners of the immodest, the ensigns of brothels, the ornaments of harlots. – Treatise 2, chapter 12

For God neither made the sheep scarlet or purple, nor taught the juices of herbs and shell-fish to dye and colour wool, nor arranged necklaces with stones set in gold, and with pearls distributed in a woven series or numerous cluster, wherewith you would hide the neck which He made; that what God formed in man may be covered, and that may be seen upon it which the devil has invented in addition. Has God willed that wounds should be made in the ears, wherewith infancy, as yet innocent, and unconscious of worldly evil, may be put to pain, that subsequently from the scars and holes of the ears precious beads may hang, heavy, if not by their weight, still by the amount of their cost? – Treatise 2, chapter 14-15

All which things sinning and apostate angels put forth by their arts, when, lowered to the contagious of earth, they forsook their heavenly vigour. They taught them also to paint the eyes with blackness drawn round them in a circle, and to stain the cheeks with a deceitful red, and to change the hair with false colours, and to drive out all truth, both of face and head, by the assault of their own corruption. And indeed in that very matter, for the sake of the fear which faith suggests to me, for the sake of the love which brotherhood requires, I think that not virgins only and widows, but married women also, and all of the sex alike, should be admonished, that the work of God and His fashioning and formation ought in no manner to be adulterated, either with the application of yellow colour, or with black dust or rouge, or with any kind of medicament which can corrupt the native lineaments. – Treatise 2, chapter 14-15

Paul proclaims in a loud and lofty voice, “But God forbid that I should glory, save in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, by whom the world is crucified unto me, and I unto the world.” And yet a virgin in the Church glories concerning her fleshly appearance and the beauty of her body! Paul adds, and says, “For they that are Christ’s have crucified their flesh, with its faults and lusts.” And she who professes to have renounced the lusts and vices of the flesh, is found in the midst of those very things which she has renounced! Virgin, you are taken, you are exposed, you boast one thing and do another. You sprinkle yourself with the stains of carnal concupiscence, although you are a candidate of purity and modesty. – Treatise 2, chapter 6

Among thieves there is at any rate some modesty in their crimes. They love pathless ravines and deserted solitudes; and they do wrong in such a way, that still the crime of the wrong-doers is veiled by darkness and night. – Treatise 5, chapter 11

Victorinus of Pettau (270 AD):

He therefore opens and seals again the testament, which He Himself had sealed. The legislator Moses intimating this, that it behooved Him to be sealed and concealed, even to the advent of His passion, veiled his face, and so spoke to the people; showing that the words of his announcement were veiled even to the advent of His time. For he himself, when he had read to the people, having taken the wool purpled with the blood of the calf, with water sprinkled the whole people, saying, This is the blood of His testament who has purified you (Exodus 24:7-8). It should therefore be observed that the Man is accurately announced, and that all things combine into one. For it is not sufficient that that law is spoken of, but it is named as a testament. For no law is called a testament, nor is anything else called a testament, save what persons make who are about to die. And whatever is within the testament is sealed, even to the day of the testator’s death. Therefore it is with reason that it is only sealed by the Lamb slain, who, as it were a lion, has broken death in pieces, and has fulfilled what had been foretold; and has delivered man, that is, the flesh, from death, and has received as a possession the substance of the dying person, that is, of the human members; that as by one body all men had fallen under the obligation of its death, also by one body all believers should be born again unto life, and rise again. Reasonably, therefore, His face is opened and unveiled to Moses; and therefore He is called Apocalypse, Revelation. For now His book is unsealed — now the offered victims are perceived — now the fabrication of the priestly chrism; moreover the testimonies are openly understood. – Victorinus, Commentary on Revelation, chapter 5.5

3. Seven thunders uttered their voices. The seven thunders uttering their voices signify the Holy Spirit of sevenfold power, who through the prophets announced all things to come, and by His voice John gave his testimony in the world; but because he says that he was about to write the things which the thunders had uttered, that is, whatever things had been obscure in the announcements of the Old Testament; he is forbidden to write them, but he was charged to leave them sealed, because he is an apostle, nor was it fitting that the grace of the subsequent stage should be given in the first. “The time,” says he, “is at hand.” For the apostles, by powers, by signs, by portents, and by mighty works, have overcome unbelief. After them there is now given to the same completed Churches the comfort of having the prophetic Scriptures subsequently interpreted, for I said that after the apostles there would be interpreting prophets.

For the apostle says: And he placed in the Church indeed, first, apostles; secondly, prophets; thirdly, teachers, 1 Corinthians 12:28 and the rest. And in another place he says: Let the prophets speak two or three, and let the others judge (1 Corinthians 14:29). And he says: Every woman that prays or prophesies with her head uncovered, dishonours her head (1 Corinthians 11:5). And when he says, Let the prophets speak two or three, and let the others judge, he is not speaking in respect of the Catholic prophecy of things unheard and unknown, but of things both announced and known. But let them judge whether or not the interpretation is consistent with the testimonies of the prophetic utterance. It is plain, therefore, that to John, armed as he was with superior virtue, this was not necessary, although the body of Christ, which is the Church, adorned with His members, ought to respond to its position – Victorinus, Commentary on Revelation, chapter 10.3

Ordinances of the Apostles (Didascalia Apostolorum, 200-250 AD):

You have heard, then, how great praise a chaste woman and one that loves her husband receives of the Lord God, one that is found faithful and is minded to please God. You therefore, O woman, shall not adorn yourself that you may please other men; and you shall not be plaited with the tresses of harlotry, nor put on the dress of harlotry, nor be shod with shoes so that you resemble them that are such; lest you bring upon you those who are ensnared by these things. And if you sin not yourself in this work of uncleanness, yet in this you will have sinned, that you have constrained and caused that (man) to desire you. But if you also sin, you have destroyed your life from God, and have become guilty also of the soul of that (man). – Chapter 3

You therefore that are a Christian, do not imitate such women; but if you would be a faithful woman, please your husband only. And when you walk in the street, cover your head with your robe, that by reason of your veil your great beauty may be hidden. And adorn not your natural face; but walk with downcast looks, being veiled. – Chapter 3

And take heed that you bathe not in a bath with men. For when there is a women’s bath in the city or in the village, a believing woman may not bathe in a bath with men. For if you cover your face from strange men with a veil of modesty, how then can you go in with strange men to a bath? – Chapter 3

For it behooves women by a veil of modesty and humility to show (their) fear of God, for the conversion and the increase of faith of them that are without, (both) of men and women. – Chapter 3

Apostolic Constitutions (300-400 AD):

You have learned what great commendations a prudent and loving wife receives from the Lord God. If you desire to be one of the faithful, and to please the Lord, O wife, do not superadd ornaments to your beauty, in order to please other men; neither affect to wear fine broidering, garments, or shoes, to entice those who are allured by such things. For although you do not do these wicked things with design of sinning yourself, but only for the sake of ornament and beauty, yet will you not so escape future punishment, as having compelled another to look so hard at you as to lust after you, and as not having taken care both to avoid sin yourself, and the affording scandal to others. – Book 1, section 3

You, therefore, who are Christian women, do not imitate such as these. But you who design to be faithful to you own husband, take care to please him alone. And when you are in the streets, cover your head; for by such a covering you will avoid being viewed of idle persons. Do not paint your face, which is God’s workmanship; for there is no part of you which lacks ornament, inasmuch as all things which God has made are very good. But the lascivious additional adorning of what is already good is an affront to the bounty of the Creator. Look downward when you walk abroad, veiling yourself as becomes women. – Book 1, section 3

Avoid also that disorderly practice of bathing in the same place with men; for many are the nets of the evil one. And let not a Christian woman bathe with an hermaphrodite; for if she is to veil her face, and conceal it with modesty from strange men, how can she bear to enter naked into the bath together with men? But if the bath be appropriated to women, let her bathe orderly, modestly, and moderately. But let her not bathe without occasion, nor much, nor often, nor in the middle of the day, nor, if possible, every day; and let the tenth hour of the day be the set time for such seasonable bathing. For it is convenient that you, who are a Christian woman, should ever constantly avoid the curiosity of many eyes. – Book 1, section 3

And when the oblation has been made, let every rank by itself partake of the Lord’s body and precious blood in order, and approach with reverence and holy fear, as to the body of their king. Let the women approach with their heads covered, as is becoming the order of women; – Book 2, chapter 7

Athanasius (296 – 373 AD):

As the time of dismissal however had arrived, the greater part had already left the Church, but there being a few women still remaining, they did as the men had charged them, whereupon a piteous spectacle ensued. The few women had just risen from prayer and had sat down when the youths suddenly came upon them naked with stones and clubs. Some of them the godless wretches stoned to death; they scourged with stripes the holy persons of the Virgins, tore off their veils and exposed their heads, and when they resisted the insult, the cowards kicked them with their feet. – Athanasius, History of the Arians, Part VII, chapter 55

For they made themselves formidable to all men, and treated all with great arrogance, using the name of the Emperor, and threatening them with his displeasure. They had to assist them in their wickedness the Duke Sebastianus, a Manichee, and a profligate young man; the Prefect, the Count, and the Receiver-General as a dissembler. Many Virgins who condemned their impiety, and professed the truth, they brought out from the houses; others they insulted as they walked along the streets, and caused their heads to be uncovered by their young men…. In a word, so cruel and bitter were they against all, that all men called them hangmen, murderers, lawless, intruders, evil-doers, and by any other name rather than that of Christians. – Athanasius, History of the Arians, Part VII, chapter 59

Those who are attached to the world and who beautify their bodies with perfume, incense, and sweet smells, and in extravagant cloth and gold in order to please men are unable to please God. But Christ does not expect any of these things from you, but only a pure heart and an undefiled body mortified by fasting. – Pseudo-Athanasius, Discourse on Salvation to a Virgin, chapter 6

Let not the substance of your clothing be costly. Let your outer garment be black — not dyed, but of its natural color or slightly dark — and let your veil be plain, of the same hue. Let your sleeves be of wool, covering your arms down to the fingers; let the hair of your head be trimmed and bound with a woolen headband that closely wraps your head, with a hood and a mantle of simple weave. If you should by chance meet someone, let your face be veiled (κατακεκαλυμμένον), lower your gaze, and do not lift your face toward a man, but only toward your God. When you stand for prayer keep your feet hidden by your shoes, for this is seemly for a sacred person. – Pseudo-Athanasius, Discourse on Salvation to a Virgin, chapter 11

You shall not anoint your body with costly ointments nor put expensive perfumes onto your outer garment. – Pseudo-Athanasius, Discourse on Salvation to a Virgin, chapter 12

It is not good for you to go out, except in great necessity. Love silence as much as you are able. Do not forget the servants of God, nor let them be left out of your heart. If a saint should come to your home, receive him in such a way as the Son of God. For our Lord Jesus Christ says, “The one who receives you, receives me” [Matt. 10:40]. If a just man should come into your house, you shall face him with fear and trembling, and you shall prostrate yourself on the ground at his feet. For you do not prostrate yourself to him, but to God who sent him. You shall take water and wash his feet and you shall listen to his words with all reverence. Do not feel confident in your self-control, lest you fall. But be fearful, for to the extent that you are fearful, you do not fall. It is best for the abstinent one to eat her bread in private. – Pseudo-Athanasius, Discourse on Salvation to a Virgin, chapter 22

It is good to flee from the crowd and withdraw in solitude. – Pseudo-Athanasius, Discourse on Salvation to a Virgin, chapter 24

Mary was, therefore, a pure virgin with a balanced state of mind, enriched in a twofold way. She loved good works, fulfilling her duties while maintaining upright thoughts regarding faith and purity. She did not desire to be seen by men but prayed to God to be her examiner. She was in no hurry to leave her home and had no familiarity at all with public squares. Instead, she remained diligently at home, living a life of seclusion, like a honeybee. The surplus of the work of her hands she generously distributed to the needy. She did not concern herself with gazing out the window but instead gazed into the Scriptures. She prayed to God in private, focusing on two main goals: To prevent any evil thought from taking root in her heart; to avoid curiosity and to prevent herself from learning hardness of heart. She left no part of her body uncovered. She mastered her anger and calmed any surge of emotion. Her words were measured, and her voice was controlled. She did not raise her voice and was careful in her heart not to slander anyone, nor would she willingly listen to others doing so. – Athanasius, Letter to Virgins

She did not go out or wander, except when it was necessary for her to go to the temple. She never neglected this duty. She went there in the company of her parents, walking as one ought and with decency in her appearance and careful watchfulness over her eyes. – Athanasius, Letter to Virgins

Regarding familiarity with a male servant or any other man, it is hardly necessary to discuss it. She was so distant from them that she could not even bear to hear their voices. As for the men, they kept their distance from her and knew her only by sight. The Gospel itself testifies to this claim. For when the Archangel Gabriel was sent to her — since he was approaching a human being — he appeared in human form and spoke to her, saying, “Hail, Mary, you who have found favor, the Lord is with you” (Luke 1:28). Upon hearing herself addressed with a masculine voice, she was greatly troubled because she was unaccustomed to hearing a man’s voice. In the purity of her understanding, Mary considered fleeing, or even dying, until the one speaking to her dispelled her fear by revealing his identity, saying, “Do not be afraid, Mary, for I am Gabriel” (Luke 1:30). Only after this did she remain, and she placed her trust in him, responding to him with confidence, knowing that the words of archangels addressed to virgins are true. This, then, is the image of virginity — and, in fact, Mary was just like this. Let the one who desires to be a virgin look to her as a model. It is precisely because of such virtues that the Word (Logos) chose her, to take from her His flesh and become man for our sake. – Athanasius, Letter to Virgins

For let them [Arians] not excuse themselves; nor retort their disgrace on those who are not as they, calling Christians after the names of their teachers , that they themselves may appear to have that Name in the same way. Nor let them make a jest of it, when they feel shame at their disgraceful appellation; rather, if they be ashamed, let them hide their faces, or let them recoil from their own irreligion. For never at any time did Christian people take their title from the Bishops among them, but from the Lord, on whom we rest our faith. — Athanasius, Discourse 1 Against the Arians, Chapter 1.2

But what need of many words, seeing that these persons are themselves accusers of the Arian heresy? For since they have not the boldness to speak out, but conceal their blasphemous expressions, it is plain that they know that this heresy is separate and alien from the truth. But since they themselves conceal it and are afraid to speak, it is necessary for me to strip off the veil from their impiety, and to expose the heresy to public view, knowing as I do the statements which Arius and his fellows formerly made, and how they were cast out of the Church, and degraded from the Clergy. But here first I ask for pardon of the foul words which I am about to produce, since I use them, not because I thus think, but in order to convict the heretics. — Athanasius, Letter to the Bishops in Egypt chapter 1

Zeno of Verona (300 –380 AD):

“When Judah saw the woman, he thought she was a prostitute, even though she had covered her face—thereby actually signaling the integrity of her chastity. – Zeno of Verona, Treatise XIV. On Judah, Chapter 1

“She veils her face so as not to be recognized.” – Zeno of Verona, Treatise XIV. On Judah, Chapter 4

Ambrose of Milan (339 – 397 AD):

10. Was it a small sign of modesty that when Rebecca came to wed Isaac, and saw her bridegroom, she took a veil, that she might not be seen before they were united? Certainly the fair virgin feared not for her beauty, but for her modesty. What of Rachel, how she, when Jacob’s kiss had been taken, wept and groaned, and would not have ceased weeping had she not known him to be a kinsman? So she both observed what was due to modesty, and omitted not kindly affection. But if it is said to a man: Gaze not on a maid, lest she cause you to fall (Sirach 9:5), what is to be said to a consecrated virgin, who, if she loves, sins in mind; if she is loved, in act also? – Ambrose, Concerning Virginity, Book 3, chapter 3

27. A banquet of death is set out with royal luxury, and when a larger concourse than usual had come together, the daughter of [queen Herodias], sent for from within the private apartments, is brought forth to dance in the sight of men. What could she have learned from an adulteress but loss of modesty? Is anything so conducive to lust as with unseemly movements thus to expose in nakedness those parts of the body which either nature has hidden or custom has veiled, to sport with the looks, to turn the neck, to loosen the hair? Fitly was the next step an offense against God. For what modesty can there be where there is dancing and noise and clapping of hands? – Ambrose, Concerning Virginity, Book 3, chapter 6

68. And should any one fall into the fire of love let him leap over it and pass forth; let him not bind to himself adulterous lust with the bands of thoughts, let him not tie knots around himself by the fastenings of continual reflection, let him not too often turn his attention to the form of a harlot, and let not a maiden lift her eyes to the countenance of a youth. And if by chance she has looked and is caught, how much more will she be entangled if she gazes with curiosity.

69. Let custom itself teach us. A woman covers her face with a veil for this reason, that in public her modesty may be safe. That her face may not easily meet the gaze of a youth, let her be covered with the nuptial veil, so that not even in chance meetings she might be exposed to the wounding of another or of herself, though the wound of either were indeed hers. But if she cover her head with a veil that she may not accidentally see or be seen (for when the head is veiled the face is hidden), how much more ought she to cover herself with the veil of modesty, so as even in public to have her own secret place. – Ambrose, Two Books Concerning Repentance, Book 1, Chapter 14

232. At the same time let us note that it is seemly to live in accordance with nature, and to pass our time in accordance with it, and that whatever is contrary to nature is shameful. For the Apostle asks: “Is it comely that a woman pray unto God uncovered; doth not nature itself teach you that if a man have long hair, it is a shame unto him? For it is contrary to nature.” And again he says: “If a woman have long hair, it is a glory unto her.” It is according to nature, since her hair is given her for a veil, for it is a natural veil. Thus nature arranges for us both character and appearance, and we ought to observe her directions. – Ambrose, Three Books on the Duties of the Clergy, Chapter XLVI

25. But in the former the fruit is later, in virginity it is earlier; old age proves them, virginity is the praise of youth, and does not need the help of years, being the fruit of every age. It becomes early years, it adorns youth, it adds to the dignity of age, and at all ages it has the gray hairs of its righteousness, the ripeness of its gravity, the veil of modesty…. – The Treatise Concerning Widows, chapter IV

You have referred to me, as to a father, the inquiry which has been made of you, why the Law was so severe in pronouncing those unclean who used the garments of the other sex, whether they were men or women, for it is written, The woman shall not wear that which pertaineth unto a man, neither shall a man put on a woman’s garment; for all that do so are an abomination unto the Lord (Deut. xxii. 5.). – Ambrose, Letter LXIX, chapter 1

Now, if you will consider it well, that which nature herself abhors must be incongruous. For why do you not wish to be thought a man, seeing that you are born such? Why do you assume an appearance which is foreign to you? Why do you play the woman, or you, O woman, the man? Nature clothes each sex in their proper raiment. Moreover in men and women, habits, complexion, gestures, gait, strength and voice are all different. – Ambrose, Letter LXIX, chapter 2

I conceive however that it is spoken not so much of garments as of manners, and of our habits and actions, in that one kind of act becomes a man, the other a woman. – Ambrose, Letter LXIX, chapter 5

But how unseemly is it for a man to do the works of a woman! As for those who curl their hair, like women, let them conceive also, let them bring forth. Yet the one sex wears veils, the other wages war. – Ambrose, Letter LXIX, chapter 6

It is but just that chastity should be lost where the distinction of sexes is not preserved, a point wherein the teaching of nature is unambiguous, according to the Apostle’s words; Is it comely that a woman pray unto God uncovered? Doth not even nature itself teach you that if a man have long hair it is a shame unto him: but if a woman hath long hair, it is a glory unto her; for her hair is given her for a covering. Such is the answer which you may make to those who have referred to you. – Ambrose, Letter LXIX, chapter 7

12. “Let the Vestal virgins,” he says, “enjoy their privileges.” It is for those to say this, who cannot believe in gratuitous virginity, it is for them to allure by profit who distrust virtue. But how many virgins have their promised rewards obtained them? They have barely seven Vestals. Such is the whole number whom the veiled and filleted head, the dye of the purple vest, the pompous litter surrounded by attendants, high privileges, great gains, and a prescribed period of virginity, have collected.

13. Let them turn their mental and bodily eye to us, let them behold a people of chastity, an undefiled multitude, a virgin assembly. No fillets to adorn their heads, but a veil of common use though dignified by chastity; the blandishments of beauty not curiously sought out, but cast aside; no purple trappings, no luxurious delicacies, but frequent fastings; no privileges, no gains; all things in short so ordered as to repress any affection in the very exercise of their functions. But in fact by this very exercise their affection to it is conciliated. Chastity is perfected by its own sacrifices. That is not virginity which is bought for money, not preserved for love of holiness; that is not integrity which is bid for at an auction by a pecuniary equivalent, to last but for a time. The first triumph of chastity is to overcome the desire of wealth, for this desire is a temptation to modesty. – Ambrose, Letter XVIII, chapters 12-13

33. A virgin bore Him Whom this world cannot contain or support. He, born of the womb of Mary, preserved inviolate her chastity, and the seal of her virginity. Therefore Christ found in the Virgin what He would take for His own, what the Lord of all would assume to Himself. By the woman and the man our flesh was cast out of Paradise, by the Virgin it was re-united to God.

34. And what shall I say of the other Mary, the sister of Moses, who, leading the female band, passed on foot over the straights of the sea?

36. And we ought to wonder at the greatness of the commendation of it which the Prophet, or rather Christ in the person of the Prophet, has expressed in one short verse: “A garden inclosed is my sister, my spouse, a spring shut up, a fountain sealed” (Song of Songs 4:12). Christ says this to the Church, whom He would have a virgin without spot or wrinkle (Ephesians 5:27). Virginity is a fertile garden, which bears many fruits of a good odour; a garden inclosed because it is surrounded on all sides with the wall of chastity…. – Ambrose, Letter LXIII, chapter 33-36

Ambrose is specifically connecting Mary to this passage about virgins being enclosed in the house, and implies Mary was veiled when she left home.

9. She was unaccustomed to go from home, except for divine service, and this with parents or kinsfolk. Busy in private at home, accompanied by others abroad, yet with no better guardian than herself, as she, inspiring respect by her gait and address, progressed not so much by the motion of her feet as by step upon step of virtue.

11. And so, too, when Gabriel visited her, Luke 1:28 did he find her, and Mary trembled, being disturbed, as though at the form of a man, but on hearing his name recognized him as one not unknown to her. And so she was a stranger as to men, but not as to the angel; that we might know that her ears were modest and her eyes bashful.

14. And then, how she also went every year to Jerusalem at the solemn day of the passover, and went with Joseph. Everywhere is modesty the companion of her singular virtues in the Virgin. This, without which virginity cannot exist, must be the inseparable companion of virginity. And so Mary did not go even to the temple without the guardianship of her modesty.

15. The secret of modesty, the banner of faith, the service of devotion, the Virgin within the house…

22. There was lately at Antioch a virgin who avoided being seen in public, but the more she shrank from men’s eyes, the more they longed for her…. – Ambrose, Concerning Virginity, book 2, paragraphs 9-22

Let them lift up the eyes of soul and body, let them look upon a people of modesty, a people of purity, an assembly of virginity. Not fillets are the ornament of their heads, but a veil common in use but ennobled by chastity, the enticement of beauty not sought out but laid aside. – Ambrose, Epistle XVIII, chapter 13

My sisters, learn from this to serve with the greatest eagerness those among you who are with child. Up to this moment, Mary had lived in the strictest seclusion. Neither that, nor her virginal modesty about appearing in public, nor the ruggedness of the mountain paths, nor the length of the journey could deter her from fulfilling her duty. Towards the heights, the Virgin hastens—the Virgin who thinks only of rendering service and is forgetful of the trouble to herself. Her strength lies not in her sex but in her love. She leaves her house and sets forth. My sisters, learn not to go running from one house to another (cf. 1 Tim. 5:13), not to linger on the streets, and not to talk in public (cf. 1 Cor. 14:35). Mary remained in her own home but hastened when she needed to go out. She stayed three whole months with her cousin. Since she had come to render service, she devoted herself entirely to that task. She remained for three months not because she enjoyed staying in someone else’s home but because she did not like to be seen much in public. – Ambrose, Commentary on Luke, Book 2, chapter 20 and 21

John Chrysostom (347 – 407 AD):

“I will therefore that men pray everywhere, lifting up holy hands, without wrath and doubting. In like manner also, that women adorn themselves in modest apparel, with shamefacedness and sobriety; not with broidered hair, or gold, or pearls, or costly array; but (which becomes women professing godliness) with good works.” – 1 Timothy 2:8-10

Paul however requires something more of women, that they adorn themselves “in modest apparel, with shamefacedness and sobriety; not with broidered hair or gold or pearls or costly array; But (which becomes women professing godliness) with good works.” But what is this “modest apparel?” Such attire as covers them completely, and decently, not with superfluous ornaments, for the one is becoming, the other is not.

What? Do you approach God to pray, with broidered hair and ornaments of gold? Have you come to a dance? To a marriage? To a gay procession? There such a broidery, such costly garments, had been seasonable, here not one of them is wanted. You have come to pray, to supplicate for pardon of your sins, to plead for your offenses, beseeching the Lord, and hoping to render Him propitious to you. Why do you adorn yourself? This is not the dress of a suppliant. How can you groan? How can you weep? How pray with fervency, when thus attired? Should thou weep, your tears will be the ridicule of the beholders. She that weeps ought not to be wearing gold. It were but acting, and hypocrisy. For is it not acting to pour forth tears from a soul so overgrown with extravagance and ambition? Away with such hypocrisy! God is not mocked! This is the attire of actors and dancers, that live upon the stage. Nothing of this sort becomes a modest woman, who should be adorned “with shamefacedness and sobriety.” – John Chrysostom, Homily 8 on 1 Timothy

When, though you do not indeed paint the face, you spend so much time and pains washing it, and spread a veil (καλύμμα) across the forehead, whiter than the face itself, and then place a hood (φᾶρος) over it, so that the black contrasts beautifully with the white – is there not in all of this vanity in dress?

What can I do, you say, if another suspects me? But you give the occasion by your dress, your looks, your gestures. It is for this reason that Paul discourses much of dress and much of modesty. And if he would remove those things which are only the indications of wealth, as gold, and pearls, and costly array; how much more those things which imply studied ornament, as painting, coloring the eyes, a mincing gait, the affected voice, a languishing and wanton look; the exquisite care in putting on the cloak and bodice, the nicely wrought girdle, and the closely-fitted shoes? For he glances at all these things, in speaking of modest apparel and shamefacedness. For such things are shameless and indecent.

You have Christ for your Bridegroom, O virgin, why do you seek to attract human lovers? He will judge you as an adulteress. Why do you not wear the ornament that is pleasing to Him; modesty, chastity, orderliness, and sober apparel? This is meretricious, and disgraceful. We can no longer distinguish harlots and virgins, to such indecency have they advanced. A virgin should be unpretentious, simply and plainly dressed; but this one practices myriad arts for her outward appearance. Stop this madness, woman! Transfer such earnestness to your soul, to your inner beauty; for this outward adornment that surrounds you does not allow the inner self to become beautiful. One who is occupied with this outward appearance despises the inner self, just as one who despises this outward appearance shows all earnestness concerning the inner self. Don’t say to me, ‘Alas, I wear worn-out clothing, cheap sandals, a worthless veil (κάλυμμα).’ What kind of adornment is this? Do not deceive yourself. It is possible, as I said, to be adorned more greatly through these very things than through those others, especially through worn-out clothes, or those that are fitted to the body and well-molded to an immodest shape, and shine brightly. – John Chrysostom, Homily 8 on 1 Timothy

And discoursing concerning the idol-sacrifices, he said not that one ought to abstain from things forbidden only, but also from things permitted when offense is given: and not only not to hurt the brethren, but not even Greeks, nor Jews. Thus, give no occasion of stumbling, says he, either to Jews, or to Greeks, or to the Church of God (1 Corinthians 10:32). But we must also orderly go over the whole passage. For perhaps some one might here have doubt also, questioning with himself, what sort of a crime it was for the woman to be uncovered, or the man covered? What sort of crime it is, learn now from hence.

But I would have ye know, that the head of every man is Christ; and the head of every woman is the man; and the head of Christ is God.

Symbols many and diverse have been given both to man and woman; to him of rule, to her of subjection: and among them this also, that she should be covered, while he has his head bare. If now these be symbols you see that both err when they disturb the proper order, and transgress the disposition of God, and their own proper limits, both the man falling into the woman’s inferiority, and the woman rising up against the man by her outward habiliments.

For if exchange of garments be not lawful, so that neither she should be clad with a cloak, nor he with a mantle or a veil: for the woman, says He, shall not wear that which pertains to a man, neither shall a man put on a woman’s garments (Deuteronomy 22:5), much more is it unseemly for these things to be interchanged. For the former indeed were ordained by men, even although God afterwards ratified them: but this by nature, I mean the being covered or uncovered. But when I say Nature, I mean God. For He it is Who created Nature. When therefore you overturn these boundaries, see how great injuries ensue.

And tell me not this, that the error is but small. For first, it is great even of itself: being as it is disobedience. Next, though it were small, it became great because of the greatness of the things whereof it is a sign. However, that it is a great matter, is evident from its ministering so effectually to good order among mankind, the governor and the governed being regularly kept in their several places by it.

So that he who transgresses disturbs all things, and betrays the gifts of God, and casts to the ground the honor bestowed on him from above; not however the man only, but also the woman. For to her also it is the greatest of honors to preserve her own rank; as indeed of disgraces, the behavior of a rebel.

And not even with this only was he content, but added again, saying, “The woman ought to have authority on her head, because of the angels.” He signifies that not at the time of prayer only but also continually, she ought to be covered.

“But if a woman is not veiled, let her also be shorn: but if it be a shame for a woman to be shorn or shaven, let her be veiled.”

Thus, in the beginning he simply requires that the head be not bare: but as he proceeds he intimates both the continuance of the rule, saying, for it is one and the same thing as if she were shaven, and the keeping of it with all care and diligence. For he said not merely covered (καλύπτεσθαι), but covered over (κατακαλύπτεσθαι), meaning that she be carefully wrapped up on every side (ἀκριβῶς πάντοθεν περισταλθαι). And by reducing it to an absurdity, he appeals to their shame, saying by way of severe reprimand, but if she be not covered, let her also be shorn. As if he had said, If you cast away the covering appointed by the law of God, cast away likewise that appointed by nature.

But if any say, And how is it one, if this woman have the covering of nature, but the other who is shaven have not even this? We answer, that as far as her will goes, she threw that off likewise by having the head bare. And if it be not bare of tresses, that is nature’s doing, not her own. So that as she who is shaven has her head bare, so this woman in like manner. For this cause He left it to nature to provide her with a covering, that even of it she might learn this lesson and veil herself.

It follows that being covered is a mark of subjection and authority. For it induces her to look down and be ashamed and preserve entire her proper virtue. For the virtue and honor of the governed is to abide in his obedience.

“Judge ye in yourselves: is it seemly that a woman pray unto God unveiled?” Again he places them as judges of the things said, which also he did respecting the idol-sacrifices. For as there he says, judge ye what I say (1 Corinthians 10:15), so here, judge in yourselves: and he hints something more awful here. For he says that the affront here passes on unto God: although thus indeed he does not express himself, but in something of a milder and more enigmatical form of speech: is it seemly that a woman pray unto God unveiled?

1 Corinthians 11:14
“Does not even nature itself teach you, that if a man have long hair, it is a dishonor unto him?”

1 Corinthians 11:15
“But if a woman have long hair, it is a glory to her; for her hair is given her for a covering.”

His constant practice of stating commonly received reasons he adopts also in this place, betaking himself to the common custom, and greatly abashing those who waited to be taught these things from him, which even from men’s ordinary practice they might have learned. For such things are not unknown even to Barbarians: and see how he everywhere deals in piercing expressions: “every man praying having his head covered dishonors his head;” and again, “but if it be a shame for a woman to be shorn or shaven, let her be veiled:” and here again, “if a man have long hair, it is a shame unto him; but if a woman have long hair, it is a glory to her, for her hair is given her for a covering.”

“And if it be given her for a covering,” say you, “wherefore need she add another covering?” That not nature only, but also her own will may have part in her acknowledgment of subjection. For that you ought to be covered nature herself by anticipation enacted a law. Add now, I pray, your own part also, that you may not seem to subvert the very laws of nature; a proof of most insolent rashness, to buffet not only with us, but with nature also. This is why God accusing the Jews said, “You have slain your sons and your daughters: this is beyond all your abominations.”

And again, Paul rebuking the unclean among the Romans thus aggravates the accusation, saying, that their usage was not only against the law of God, but even against nature. “For they changed the natural use into that which is against nature” (Romans 1:26). For this cause then here also he employs this argument signifying this very thing, both that he is not enacting any strange law and that among Gentiles their inventions would all be reckoned as a kind of novelty against nature. So also Christ, implying the same, said, “Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye also so them;” showing that He is not introducing anything new.

“But if any man seems to be contentious, we have no such custom, neither the Churches of God.”

It is then contentiousness to oppose these things, and not any exercise of reason. Notwithstanding, even thus it is a measured sort of rebuke which he adopts, to fill them the more with self-reproach; which in truth rendered his saying the more severe. For we, says he, have no such custom, so as to contend and to strive and to oppose ourselves. And he stopped not even here, but also added, “neither do the Churches of God;” signifying that they resist and oppose themselves to the whole world by not yielding. However, even if the Corinthians were then contentious, yet now the whole world has both received and kept this law. So great is the power of the Crucified. – John Chrysostom, Homily 26 on First Corinthians

Their women used both to pray and prophesy unveiled (ἀνακεκαλυμμέναι) and with their head bare (γυμνῇ) (for then women also used to prophesy), but the men went so far as to wear long hair as having spent their time in philosophy, and covered (περιεβάλλοντο) their heads when praying and prophesying, each of which was a Grecian custom. – John Chrysostom, Homily 26 on First Corinthians

Wherefore also he said at the beginning, Every man praying or prophesying, having anything on his head, dishonors his head. He said not, covered, but having anything on his head; signifying that even though he pray with the head bare, yet if he have long hair, he is like to one covered (κεκαλυμμένῳ). For the hair, says he, is given for a covering. – John Chrysostom, Homily 26 on First Corinthians

Moreover, a father according to the flesh has many things which make the custody of his daughter easy; for the mother, and nurse, and a multitude of handmaids share in helping the parent to keep the maiden safe. For neither is she permitted to be perpetually hurrying into the market-place, nor when she does go there is she compelled to show herself to any of the passers-by, the evening darkness concealing one who does not wish to be seen no less than the walls of the house. And apart from these things, she is relieved from every cause which might otherwise compel her to meet the gaze of men; for no anxiety about the necessaries of life, no menaces of oppressors, nor anything of that kind reduces her to this unfortunate necessity, her father acting in her stead in all these matters; while she herself has only one anxiety, which is to avoid doing or saying anything unworthy the modest conduct which becomes her…. Now he who commands her to stay always at home ought to cut off these pretexts, providing for her independence in the necessaries of life, and giving her some woman who will see to the management of these things. He must also keep her away from funeral obsequies, and nocturnal festivals; for that artful serpent knows only too well how to scatter his poison through the medium even of good deeds. And the maiden must be fenced on every side, and rarely go out of the house during the whole year, except when she is constrained by inexorable necessity. – On The Priesthood, book 3, chapter 17

The only necessary times for a woman to go out are either to come here to church, or when her body needs to be washed at the bath; but for the most part she sits at home, and there she can truly grow in wisdom. And when she receives her husband coming in upset, she can calm and steady him, bringing his thoughts into order, cutting off what is excessive and wild, and so send him out again—having laid aside whatever evils he dragged back from the marketplace, and carrying with him whatever good things he learned at home. Nothing—nothing—is stronger than a pious, sensible woman for bringing her husband into proper order and shaping his soul in whatever way she wishes. For he will not endure friends, or teachers, or rulers as he will his own wife when she urges and counsels him, because her advice carries a certain pleasure with it, since the one giving the counsel is deeply loved. — John Chrysostom, Homily 61 on John, PG 59:352-353

Great was the generosity of this woman, and great was her modesty. You may learn both these virtues of hers from what she did and what she said. Do you see how her modesty did not spoil her generosity, nor her generosity corrupt her modesty? Because of her modesty she did not run to meet the man nor address him first. Because of her generosity and hospitality she did not refuse or deny what he requested. If she had run up to him and addressed him before he said anything, we would call her bold and shameless…. So, you see, as Rebecca arrived in Abraham’s country sitting on the camel, before she came near, she looked up and saw Isaac, and jumped down from her camel. Do you see her strength? Do you see her vigor? She jumped down from the camel. The girls of those days had such strength along with chastity. “She said to the servant, ‘Who is that man walking in the field?’ The servant said, ‘It is my master,’ So she took her veil and covered herself.” See how her chastity is shown by everything she did, how modest and worthy of respect she was. – John Chrysostom, On Marriage and Family Life, How to Choose a Wife

After reading this law, Paul says, “This is a great mystery.” How is it a great mystery? Tell me. Because the girl who has always been kept at home and has never seen the bridegroom, from the first day loves and cherishes him as her own body. Again, the husband, who has never seen her, never shared even the fellowship of speech with her, from the first day prefers her to everyone, to his friends, his relatives, even his parents. – John Chrysostom, On Marriage and Family Life, How to Choose a Wife

Do you see, dearly beloved, how the earth, which was previously invisible and lacking all shape through being hidden by the waters as though under covers, he unveils, as it were, and shows its face at long last, giving it its own name. – Homilies 5 on Genesis, Chapter 9

Who could fail to be absolutely astonished at the thought of how the word uttered by the Lord, “‘Let the earth put forth a crop of vegetation,'” penetrated to the very bowels of the earth and, as though with a veil, adorned the face of the earth with a variety of flowers? In an instant you could see the earth, which just before had been shapeless and unkempt, take on such beauty as almost to defy comparison with heaven. – Homilies 5 on Genesis, Chapter 13

Although other sins are grievous and are considered grievous, as, for example, murder and adultery are grievous and considered such, yet swearing is a grievous sin but it is not considered to be such. On this account I lament and fear this sin, for it is a characteristic of the craft of the devil to bring in a sin with its face veiled. – Tenth Instruction, chapter 3

Susanna, this blessed one, was of a good family and attractive and had been confined to her chamber since she was a child, growing up in modesty, When Satan turned his attention to her youth, she was joined in matrimony according to the Law.” She kept to the bed of her husband, incorruptibly in accordance with the requirements of marriage… – John Chrysostom, Homily on Susanna (Exegesis of Susanna)

Now, when lack of self-control intrudes itself into the soul, it does so like a thief and enters the chamber of the heart and lays it waste and strips it of modesty. This blessed woman protected her gaze, her posture, her steps, her hearing, her sight, her sense of smell, her taste, and her touch. She truly was, as wisdom says, “a garden locked, a fountain sealed” (Song of Songs 4:12). Like a garden that no one could plunder, she was overflowing with the fragrance of chastity. Like a sealed fountain of faith, no one with unruly behavior could draw out the beauty of her chastity. – John Chrysostom, Homily on Susanna (Exegesis of Susanna)

Do you see a courageous soul in a woman’s body? Do you see a woman’s chastity, whose memory remains immortal and victorious? She was glorified by men, exalted by angels, and crowned by God. Women, emulate her so that you may also be deemed worthy of the same honor from God in Christ Jesus, our Lord, to whom be glory and dominion forever and ever. Amen. – John Chrysostom, Homily on Susanna (Exegesis of Susanna)

For how can it be other than worthy of the utmost condemnation that a damsel who has spent her life entirely at home and been schooled in modesty from earliest childhood, should be compelled on a sudden to cast off all shame, and from the very commencement of her marriage be instructed in imprudence; and find herself put forward in the midst of wanton and rude men, and unchaste, and effeminate? What evil will not be implanted in the bride from that day forth? Immodesty, petulance, insolence, the love of vain glory: since they will naturally go on and desire to have all their days such as these. Hence our women become expensive and profuse; hence are they void of modesty, hence proceed their unnumbered evils.

Behold then what follows from all this. Not in the day only but also in the evening, they provide on purpose men that have well drunk, besotted, and inflamed with luxurious fare, to look upon the beauty of the damsel’s countenance; nor yet in the house only but even through the market-place do they lead her in pomp to make an exhibition; conducting her with torches late in the evening so as that she may be seen of all: by their doings recommending nothing else than that henceforth she put off all modesty.

“What then, says one, do you find fault with marriage? Tell me.” That be far from me. I am not so senseless: but the things which are so unworthily appended to marriage, the painting the face, the coloring the eyebrows, and all the other niceness of that kind. For indeed from that day she will receive many lovers even before her destined consort. – Homily 12, on 1 Corinthians

Nowadays on the day of a wedding people dance and sing hymns to Aphrodite, songs full of adultery, corruption of marriages, illicit loves, unlawful unions, and many other impious and shameful themes. They accompany the bride in public with unseemly drunkenness and shameful speeches. How can you expect chastity of her, tell me, if you accustom her to such shamelessness from the first day, if you present in her sight such actions and words as even the more serious slaves should not hear? For such a long time her father has striven along with her mother to protect the virgin, to keep her from speaking or hearing any of these words. He has arranged for private chambers, women’s apartments, guards, doors, and locks. He has allowed her to go out only in the evening, and made sure that she did not show herself to anyone, not even her relatives (καὶ τὰς ἐν ἑσπέρᾳ προόδους, καὶ τὸ μηδενὶ φαίνεσθαι μηδὲ τῶν ἐπιτηδείων). Have you overthrown all these precautions in one day, teaching her shamelessness by that disgraceful retinue, and introducing corrupt thoughts into the soul of the bride? Do not the subsequent evils begin here? Is not this the beginning of childlessness and widowhood and untimely orphanhood? – John Chrysostom, Sermon on Marriage, chapter 1 (Patrologia Graeca 51:207)

I know that some people think I am burdensome and difficult, giving advice like this and uprooting ancient custom. But I do not care at all about their objections. I do not seek your favor but your benefit. I do not ask for the applause of praise, but the profit of wisdom. Let no one tell me that “this is the custom”. Where sin is boldly committed, forget about custom! If evil things are done, even if the custom is ancient, abolish them. If they are not evil, even if they are not customary, introduce them and establish them. Actually it was not an ancient custom to celebrate weddings in a disgraceful way, but some kind of innovation. Consider how Isaac married Rebecca, how Jacob married Rachel. Scripture tells us of these weddings, and how these brides entered the households of their bridegrooms. Nothing is said about such customs. – John Chrysostom, Sermon on Marriage, chapter 1

“No one in the city has done this [modest custom],” you say. Why don’t you hurry to be the founder of this good custom, so that posterity may attribute it to you? If anyone envies or imitates this custom, your descendants will be able to say to inquirers that you first introduced this practice. – John Chrysostom, Sermon on Marriage, chapter 1

And the Laconian women also exhort their sons, either to bring their shield back from the war, or to be brought back dead upon it. For these reasons I am ashamed that Greeks philosophize in such ways, while we behave disgracefully. Those who know nothing about the resurrection, do the things of those who know; while those who know, do the things of those who are ignorant. Many also, what they do not do for God, this they often do out of respect for men. For the wealthier women do not tear their hair, nor bare their arms; which in itself is worthy of the utmost condemnation, not because they do not bare them, but because they do it not out of piety, but so as not to seem to disgrace themselves. So then, shame overcomes grief, but the fear of God does not overcome it? And how are these things not worthy of the utmost condemnation? Therefore, what the rich women do on account of their wealth, the poor women ought to do on account of the fear of God. – John Chrysostom, Commentary on John, Homily 62

Remember, he says, my bonds. Marriage is a bond, a bond ordained of God, a harlot is a severing and a dissolving. It is permitted you to embellish marriage with other things, such as full tables, and apparel. I do not cut off these things, lest I should seem to be clownish to an extreme; and yet Rebecca was content with her veil only Genesis 24:65; still I do not cut them off. It is permitted you to embellish and set off marriage with apparel, with the presence of reverend men and reverend women. Why do you introduce those mockeries? why those monsters? Tell us what it is you hear from them? What? Do you blush to tell? Do you blush, and yet force them to do it? If it is honorable, wherefore do you not do it yourself as well? But if disgraceful, wherefore do you compel another? Everything should be full of chasteness, of gravity, of orderliness; but I see the reverse, people frisking like camels and mules. For the virgin, her chamber is the only befitting place. But, says one, she is poor. Because she is poor, she ought to be modest also; let her have her character in the place of a fortune. Has she no dowry to give with herself? Then why do you make her otherwise contemptible through her life and manners? I praise the custom, that virgins attend to do honor to their fellow; matrons attend to do honor to her who is made one of their order. Rightly has this been ordered. For these are two companies, one of virgins, the other of the married; the one are giving her up, the other receiving her. The bride is between them, neither virgin, nor wife, for she is coming forth from those, and entering into the fellowship of these. But those harlots, what mean they? They ought to hide their faces when marriage is celebrated; they ought to be dug into the earth, (for harlotry is the corruption of marriage,) but we introduce them at our marriages.

And, when you are engaged in any work, you count it ill-omened to speak even a syllable of what is adverse to it; for instance, when you sow, when you draw off the wine from your vats, you would not, even if asked, utter a syllable about vinegar; but here, where the object is chasteness, introduce ye the vinegar? For such is an harlot. When you are preparing sweet ointment, you suffer nought ill-scented to be near. Marriage is a sweet ointment. Why then do you introduce the foul stench of the dunghill into the preparation of your ointment? What do you say? Shall the virgin dance, and yet feel no shame before her fellow? For she ought to have more gravity than the other; she has at least come forth from the [nurse’s] arm, and not from the palæstra. For the virgin ought not to appear publicly at all at a marriage. – John Chrysostom, Homily 12 on Colossians

Let us first examine the situation in the house. And let us suppose that they are separated by walls and sleep in separate rooms; for I do not think anyone, even if he should choose to be exceedingly indecorous, would make such an example of himself as to sleep in one room. Let them, therefore, be separated by walls; and what of that? For this is not sufficient to free them from suspicion; but let us say nothing now about suspicion, not even if ten thousand maids live with him; but for the time being let us examine the other indecency. For it happens that they get up at the same time, not for the sake of all-night vigils (for nothing pious could ever come from such souls), and walk past each other as they are lying down, and speak to each other at night; what could be more shameful than this? And if it should happen that the woman living with him suddenly falls ill, then there is no longer any benefit of walls, but he gets up before the others and goes in to the virgin as she is lying down, having her illness as an excuse, and since the female servants are often more sluggishly disposed, he both sits beside her and attends to the other things which it is often lawful for women alone to minister, and she is not ashamed, but even prides herself in it, nor does he blush, but even rejoices the more, and all the more, the more shameful a service he displays; and that apostolic saying that says “Whose glory is in their shame,” is then shown through their deeds. And when the female servants also get up, the shame is worse; for with uncovered (ἀκαλύπτῳ) head, and wearing only a tunic, and with bare arms, since they are flustered and rising in the night, they run about while he is present, or rather while he is turning in their midst and running around with them, they are forced to do everything; what could be more shameful than this? And if a midwife should arrive, not even then is he ashamed, but he even puts on airs when other people’s daughters come in. For he looks to one thing only, how he might display his service to the sick woman, not knowing that the more he displays it, the more he has disgraced both himself and her. And what wonder is it if he does not blush when he arrives? For often in the middle of the night they do not hesitate, doing the work of lowly female servants, to run for the midwife herself; and when she arrives, sometimes she has cast him out even against his will, even if he is very shameless, and sometimes she has allowed him to enter and sit beside her; and yet what could anyone do, even if he contrived ten thousand things to disgrace him, like that which they prepare for themselves? … For when she learns to converse with a man with boldness, and to sit with him, and to look him in the face, and to laugh in his presence, and to be indecorous in many other ways, and considers none of this to be a dreadful thing, then the veil (καταπέτασμα) of her virginity is torn down, and the flower is trampled upon. – John Chrysostom, That Regular Women Should Not Cohabit With Men, part 13

Gregory of Nazianzus (329 – 390 AD):

To Basilissa: … I won’t hesitate to strengthen your enthusiasm as much as I can, not by the addition of different or strange precepts but with reminders of what I’ve often said and what you continuously practice. Here they are. Guide your soul over miseries with a lifestyle geared toward the most excellent things. Separate from your thought everything alien to virtue and unworthy of your judgment. Direct yourself toward piety and every form of orderly behavior…. Bring your way of life into rhythm with forbearance, your routine into rhythm with calm detachment, your tongue into rhythm with taciturnity. With these, adorn your head by covering it, your brow by keeping it restrained, your eyes by bowing them down and glancing about with decency, your mouth by not speaking improperly, your ears by listening to only serious matters, and your whole face with the hue of shame. In everything and by all means, keep yourself unmolested like an untouched relic. For gravity, constancy, temperance—these are the appropriate and proper adornment for a woman. – Letter 244

8. In modesty she so greatly excelled, and so far surpassed, those of her own day, to say nothing of those of old time who have been illustrious for modesty, that, in regard to the two divisions of the life of all, that is, the married and the unmarried state, the latter being higher and more divine, though more difficult and dangerous, while the former is more humble and more safe, she was able to avoid the disadvantages of each, and to select and combine all that is best in both… presenting herself, as long as she lived, as an example to her offspring of all that was good, and when summoned hence, leaving her will behind her, as a silent exhortation to her house.

9. Indeed, the divine Solomon, in his instructive wisdom—I mean in the Book of Proverbs—praises both the staying at home and the love for her husband in the woman. He contrasts the woman who wanders about outside, who is lacking in self-control and without honor, and who hunts for precious souls with whorish looks and words, with the woman who conducts herself properly at home and “acts the part of a woman” for her husband, always applying her hands to the distaff and preparing double cloaks for her man; who buys a field in due season, provides well for the servants, welcomes friends with a full table, and all the other things by which that wise man praised the prudent and hard-working woman. But if I were to praise my sister from these qualities, I would be praising the statue by its shadow, or the lion by its claws, passing over the greater and more perfect qualities. Who was more deserving of renown, and yet who avoided it so much and made herself inaccessible to the eyes of man? … Listen, you women addicted to ease and display, who despise the veil of shamefacedness. Who ever so kept her eyes under control? Who so derided laughter, that the ripple of a smile seemed a great thing to her? Who more steadfastly closed her ears? And who opened them more to the Divine words, or rather, who installed the mind as ruler of the tongue in uttering the judgments of God? Who, as she, regulated her lips?

10. Here, if you will, is another point of her excellence: one of which neither she nor any truly modest and decorous woman thinks anything: but which we have been made to think much of, by those who are too fond of ornament and display, and refuse to listen to instruction on such matters. She was never adorned with gold wrought into artistic forms of surpassing beauty, nor flaxen tresses, fully or partially displayed, nor spiral curls, nor dishonouring designs of men who construct erections on the honourable head, nor costly folds of flowing and transparent robes, nor graces of brilliant stones, which color the neighbouring air, and cast a glow upon the form; nor the arts and witcheries of the painter, nor that cheap beauty of the infernal creator who works against the Divine, hiding with his treacherous pigments the creation of God, and putting it to shame with his honour, and setting before eager eyes the imitation of an harlot instead of the form of God, so that this bastard beauty may steal away that image which should be kept for God and for the world to come. But though she was aware of the many and various external ornaments of women, yet none of them was more precious to her than her own character, and the brilliancy stored up within. One red tint was dear to her, the blush of modesty; one white one, the sign of temperance: but pigments and pencillings, and living pictures, and flowing lines of beauty, she left to women of the stage and of the streets, and to all who think it a shame and a reproach to be ashamed.

11. What could be keener than the intellect of her who was recognized as a common adviser not only by those of her family, those of the same people and of the one fold, but even by all men round about, who treated her counsels and advice as a law not to be broken? What more sagacious than her words? What more prudent than her silence? Having mentioned silence, I will proceed to that which was most characteristic of her, most becoming to women, and most serviceable to these times. Who had a fuller knowledge of the things of God, both from the Divine oracles, and from her own understanding? But who was less ready to speak, confining herself within the due limits of women?

15. You know how her maddened mules ran away with her carriage, and unfortunately overturned it, how horribly she was dragged along, and seriously injured, to the scandal of unbelievers at the permission of such accidents to the righteous, and how quickly their unbelief was corrected: for, all crushed and bruised as she was, in bones and limbs, alike in those exposed and in those out of sight, she would have none of any physician, except Him Who had permitted it; both because she shrunk from the inspection and the hands of men, preserving, even in suffering, her modesty, and also awaiting her justification from Him Who allowed this to happen, so that she owed her preservation to none other than to Him…. But the following incident, hitherto unknown and concealed from moot men by the Christian principle I spoke of, and her pious shrinking from vanity and display…. – Oration 8, Funeral Oration on His Sister Gorgonia

God is light, light the most sublime, of which all our light is but a momentary emanation or radiance penetrating the regions below, dazzling though it may appear. As you see, He tramples the gloom that surrounds us and made darkness his covering around him, putting it between himself and us, just as Moses also once put a veil between himself and Israel’s hardness of heart so that dark nature might not win an easy glimpse of that secret beauty of which only a few are worthy and just as easily reject it because it was effortlessly acquired. – Oration 32, chapter 15

To Basil: A smarter person would have foreseen this, but I had no fear in writing to you, old-fashioned and foolish as I am. My letter upset you, but, let me say, neither rightly nor fairly but quite unnecessarily. And while you haven’t confessed your dismay, you haven’t concealed it either; if you did, you did so skillfully, by veiling the appearance of dismay as if with a shameful mask. – Letter 59

Cyril of Jerusalem (313 – 386 AD):

So that immediately the entire multitude of the city rushed together into the holy church, seized by the fear of this divine vision along with joy, both young and old, men and women, of every age, and even the maidens who were secluded in their chambers at home, both locals and foreigners…. – Cyril of Jerusalem, Letter to the Emperor Constantius

And let your feet hasten to the instructions. Receive the exorcisms with earnestness; whether you are breathed upon or adjured, the matter is for your salvation. Consider yourself to be unrefined gold, and adulterated, mixed with various substances—with copper, and tin, and iron, and lead. We seek to have the gold alone. Just as gold cannot be purified without fire, so the soul cannot be purified without adjurations (or exorcisms). These, however, are divine, gathered from the divine Scriptures. Your face is covered (ἐσκέπασταί) so that your mind may henceforth be at rest; so that your wandering gaze may not cause your heart to wander as well. And while the eyes are covered (ἐσκεπασμένων), the ears are not hindered from receiving salvation. For in the same way that those skilled in the craft of gold-working, by inserting air into the fire through certain delicate instruments and by blowing upon the gold hidden in the ashes, stimulating the adjacent flame, they find what is sought; so too, when those who perform the adjurations, through the Divine Spirit, instill fear, and as if in ashes (i.e., the body), rekindle the soul: the hostile demon flees, but salvation remains, and the hope of eternal life remains, and henceforth the soul, purified of sins, possesses salvation. – Cyril of Jerusalem, Prologue to the Catechetical Lectures, chapter 9

God grant that, your soul’s face unveiled (ἀνακεκαλυμμένῳ) with a clear conscience, you may “reflecting as in a glass the glory of the Lord,” go “from glory to glory” in Christ Jesus our Lord, whose is the glory forever and ever. Amen. – Cyril of Jerusalem, On The Mysteries, Lecture 4

Basil of Caesarea (330 – 379 AD):

“Dissolute women, having forgotten the fear of God and scorned the eternal fire, on a day when they ought to have remained in their homes to reflect on the resurrection, and to ponder that day when the heavens will be opened, the Judge will appear to us from heaven, the trumpets of God will sound, the dead will be raised, righteous judgment will take place, and each will be recompensed according to their deeds— instead of keeping such things in their thoughts, purifying their hearts from wicked thoughts, erasing past sins with tears, and preparing to meet Christ on the great day of His appearing—they have cast off the yoke of Christ’s bondage. They have thrown off the veils (καλύμματα) of modesty from their heads, despised God, and disregarded His angels. They have shamelessly exposed themselves to the eyes of men, shaking their hair, dragging their garments, playing with their feet, casting lustful glances, laughing excessively, and abandoning themselves to frenzied dancing. They invite upon themselves all manner of youthful recklessness. Gathering in the public squares outside the city, they form choirs, turning sacred places into workshops of their own shamelessness. They have polluted the air with lewd songs and defiled the earth with the unclean feet that stamped it in their dances. Surrounding themselves with crowds of young men as spectators, they truly act as insolent and unruly women, leaving no excess of madness untried. How can I remain silent about these things? How can I adequately lament them?” – Basil of Caesarea, Homily 14, On The Drunkards, Patrologia Graeca 31, 447-448

They carry their neck high so that their faces may be plainly seen by everyone. But the modest and orderly woman, looking down to the earth out of shamefastness, keeps her face drawn downward; whereas the immodest one, who intends to catch many in the snare of her beauty, walks with her neck held high and, by the movements of her eyes, makes known the lewdness of her soul with her glance, sending out through her eyes a certain destructive poison — like what is told in the story of the basilisk, which, they say, destroys those who see it by its look alone. And since there are certain paints cultivated by women for the adornment of the face — white, and red, and another that is black (the white lies about the fairness of the body, the red makes the cheeks bloom, and the black traces the eyebrows around the eyes in a crescent shape) — the Lord threatens to take away even these, so that, he says, the self-control of men may not be stolen, and the eyes of pitiable youths may not be carried off by these paintings. For the evil dispositions of women drag down the weak souls of the men who live with them. – Basil the Great, Sermon 19, Concerning Chastity and Intemperance (Moral Sermons collected by Symeon Metaphraste, PG 32.1349)

It is necessary for a man neither to pray nor to prophesy while covered (κεκαλυμμένον), nor for a woman to do so uncovered (ἀκατακάλυπτον). – Basil of Caesarea, Moralia 56.7

Gregory of Nyssa (335 – 394 AD):

“They struck” and “They wounded” and “They took the veil (θέριστρον)….” But here again it says that her veil (θέριστρον) has been taken away from her. The veil (περιβόλαιον) is a bridal mantle (θέριστρον), covering (συγκαλύπτον) the head and the face, as the story says concerning Rebecca. – Gregory of Nyssa, On the Song of Songs 6.359

Again, having gone beyond these things, she perceives the Word approaching more magnificently, his head being filled with dew and the drops of the night that are on his locks, she washes her feet, she takes off her tunic, she drips myrrh from her hands, she brings her hands to the lock, she opens the entrance, she seeks the one who is not comprehended, she calls the one who is unattainable, she is found by the guards, she receives upon herself the striking rod, she imitates the rock concerning which the prophet says that, “He struck the rock and waters flowed out.” You see to what height the bride has ascended; for this reason she is struck like the sheer rock by Moses, so that in like manner to that rock she too might gush forth for those who thirst for the Word, which poured forth from the blow. Then upon these things she lays bare the beauty of her face, when her guards have removed her veil. – Gregory of Nyssa, On the Song of Songs 6.367

… She replied weeping: “For the holy one [Macrina], the pure life was what she sought as adornment; for her, this was both the ornament of her life and the shroud of death. She had so little concern for dress that she owned nothing during her lifetime and stored none away for the present situation, so that, even if we desired it, there is nothing more to use than what is already here.” I said: “Is there nothing in the storage closets to decorate the funeral bier?” “What closets?” she replied. “You hold in your hands all her treasure. Behold her cloak, behold the veil (κάλυπτρα) for her head, the worn-out shoes for her feet. This is her wealth, this is her property. There is nothing beyond what you see put aside in hidden places or made secure in treasures houses. She recognized one storage place for private wealth: the treasury of heaven.” – Gregory of Nyssa, Life of St. Macrina, Patrologia Graeca 46:989

Basil of Ancyra (died 362 AD):

For a man, since he has in some way a share in an angelic rank, may with uncovered head confidently let himself be seen by his fellow–citizens; but a woman, whose nature has fallen far short of that of a man, should have authority on her head, by this visible “authority on her head” confessing in a becoming way her submission to the one who is greater. For this reason, he says, even nature itself has covered a woman’s head from above with hair, teaching her already in this way that it is fitting for a woman never—no, not only never to uncover any other part of her body carelessly, but not even her head—to be exposed without concern. And because it can happen that, when no men are present, they sometimes grow bold in this, he has added the more awe-inspiring motive of the dignity of the men, when he said, “because of the angels” (1 Corinthians 11:10), those who are everywhere present and see the things that are done. Let every woman, then, and even more the virgin, feel reverence for the angels, even when she is the only human person in the house; and whenever it is necessary for her to attend to the needs of the body, having wrapped both her head and each part, let her hurry to finish the task, and, as far as she can, let her keep her limbs covered, feeling shame not only before her own eyes, and together with them the eyes of the angels, but also training herself there, as in her own private place of ascetic practice, to love what is beautiful in modesty. – Basil of Ancyra, On Virginity, chapter 34

Chromatius of Aquileia (died 407 AD):

If therefore any man is flattered by the outward beauty of his body, or if some woman boasts over the beauty of her flesh, let them follow the example of Joseph, let them follow the example of Susanna [Dan 13]. Let them be chaste in body, let them be modest in mind; such people are beautiful not merely to humans but also to God. For there are three examples of chastity in the church that everyone ought to imitate: Joseph, Susanna, and Mary. Let men imitate Joseph; women, Susanna; and virgins, Mary. – Chromatius, Sermon 24, chapter 2

Rufinus of Aquileia (340 – 410 AD):

But while they were on the way in the conveyance into which the soldiers had forced them, the devout and chaste mother spoke to her daughters: “You know, my sweetest daughters, how I have brought you up in God’s discipline; you know that from childhood God has been to you a father, a nurturer, and an instructor, and that together with me you have so loved what is good in modesty and chastity that never have your very eyes been tainted by the sight of impurity, as I know of you. You can see that the whole purpose of this violence is to separate us from God or from chastity. Are these limbs, then, which the common air itself has hardly known, to be prostituted in the common brothels? – Rufinus, Church History, book 8, chapter 12, paragraph 3

Women too who were mistresses of households and well born were forced by famine to forget propriety and go out into the streets to seek alms, and those whom modesty used not to allow to look at the faces of others were compelled by famine to beg for a bit of food or even to seize it for themselves. – Rufinus, Church History, book 9, chapter 8, paragraph 7

At the same time he saw some common woman come bursting out of her house with such haste and speed that she paused neither to close the door nor to veil herself properly as women should; she was pulling with her a small child and hurrying along at such a rate that she even collided with the retinue. – Rufinus, Church History, book 11, chapter 5

Jerome (342 – 420 AD):

You should choose for your companions staid and serious women, particularly widows and virgins, persons of approved conversation, of few words, and of a holy modesty. Shun gay and thoughtless girls, who deck their heads and wear their hair in fringes, who use cosmetics to improve their skins and affect tight sleeves, dresses without a crease, and dainty buskins; and by pretending to be virgins more easily sell themselves into destruction. Moreover, the character and tastes of a mistress are often inferred from the behavior of her attendants. Regard as fair and lovable and a fitting companion one who is unconscious of her good looks and unconcerned about her appearance; who does not expose her breast out of doors or throw back her cloak to reveal her neck; who veils all of her face except her eyes, and only uses these to find her way. – Letter 130, chapter 18

The women who ought to scandalize Christians are those who paint their eyes and lips with rouge and cosmetics; whose chalked faces, unnaturally white, are like those of idols; upon whose cheeks every chance tear leaves a furrow; who fail to realize that years make them old; who heap their heads with hair not their own; who smooth their faces, and rub out the wrinkles of age; and who, in the presence of their grandsons, behave like trembling school-girls. A Christian woman should blush to do violence to nature, or to stimulate desire by bestowing care upon the flesh. They that are in the flesh, the apostle tells us, cannot please God. – Letter 38, to Marcella, chapter 3

And then, speaking of a recently-deceased widow, who had repented of her luxurious lifestyle, he writes:

In days gone by our dear widow was extremely fastidious in her dress, and spent whole days before her mirror to correct its deficiencies…. In those days maids arranged her hair, and her head, which had done no harm, was forced into a waving head-dress. Now she leaves her hair alone, and her only head-dress is a veil. – Letter 38, to Marcella, chapter 4

There are some who hate their parents and have no affection for their kin. Their state of mind is indicated by a restlessness which disdains excuses; they tear up the veil of chastity and put it aside like a cobweb. Such are the ways of women; not, indeed, that men are any better. – Letter 125, chapter 6

In a letter addressed to a virgin named Eustochium, he draws similar parallels from the Song of Songs as Origen does, advising her from its spiritual teachings about Christ’s bride:

Go not from home nor visit the daughters of a strange land, though you have patriarchs for brothers and Israel for a father. Dinah went out and was seduced. Do not seek the Bridegroom in the streets; do not go round the corners of the city. For though you may say: I will rise now and go about the city: in the streets and in the broad ways I will seek Him whom my soul loves, and though you may ask the watchmen: Have you seen Him whom my soul loves? no one will deign to answer you. The Bridegroom cannot be found in the streets: Strait and narrow is the way which leads unto life. So the Song goes on: I sought him but I could not find him: I called him but he gave me no answer. And would that failure to find Him were all. You will be wounded and stripped, you will lament and say: The watchmen that went about the city found me: they smote me, they wounded me, they took away my veil from me. Now… if one who could speak thus suffered so much because she went abroad, what shall become of us who are but young girls; of us who, when the bride goes in with the Bridegroom, still remain without? Jesus is jealous. He does not choose that your face should be seen of others. You may excuse yourself and say: I have drawn close my veil, I have covered my face and I have sought You there… yet in spite of your excuses He will be angry and say…. “Unless you know yourself, and keep your heart with all diligence, unless also you avoid the eyes of the young men, you will be turned out of My bride-chamber to feed the goats, which shall be set on the left hand.” – Letter 22, to Eustochium, chapter 25

When they go out they do their best to attract notice, and with nods and winks encourage troops of young fellows to follow them. Of each and all of these the prophet’s words are true: You have a whore’s forehead; you refuse to be ashamed (Jeremiah 3:3). Their robes have but a narrow purple stripe, it is true; and their head-dress is somewhat loose, so as to leave the hair free. – Letter 22, to Eustochium, chapter 13

When Paula comes to be a little older and to increase like her Spouse in wisdom and stature and in favour with God and man, let her go with her parents to the temple of her true Father but let her not come out of the temple with them. Let them seek her upon the world’s highway amid the crowds and the throng of their kinsfolk, and let them find her nowhere but in the shrine of the scriptures (Luke 2:43-46), questioning the prophets and the apostles on the meaning of that spiritual marriage to which she is vowed. Let her imitate the retirement of Mary whom Gabriel found alone in her chamber and who was frightened (Luke 1:29), it would appear, by seeing a man there. Let the child emulate her of whom it is written that the king’s daughter is all glorious within. Wounded with love’s arrow let her say to her beloved, the king has brought me into his chambers. Song of Songs 1:4 At no time let her go abroad, lest the watchmen find her that go about the city, and lest they smite and wound her and take away from her the veil of her chastity (Song of Songs 5:7), and leave her naked in her blood (Ezekiel 16:1-10). Nay rather when one knocks at her door (Song of Songs 5:2) let her say: I am a wall and my breasts like towers (Song of Songs 8:10). I have washed my feet; how shall I defile them? – Jerome, Letter 107 To Laeta, chapter 7

Christ Himself is a virgin; and His mother is also a virgin; yea, though she is His mother, she is a virgin still. For Jesus has entered in through the closed doors (John 20:19),and in His sepulchre — a new one hewn out of the hardest rock — no man is laid either before Him or after Him (John 19:41). Mary is a garden enclosed… a fountain sealed (Song of Songs 4:12). – Letter 48, chapter 21

Isaiah tells of the mystery of our faith and hope (Isaiah 7:14): “Behold a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son, and shall call his name Emmanuel.” I know that the Jews are accustomed to meet us with the objection that in Hebrew the word Almah does not mean a virgin, but a young woman. And, to speak truth, a virgin is properly called Bethulah, but a young woman, or a girl, is not Almah, but Naarah! What then is the meaning of Almah? A hidden virgin, that is, not merely virgin, but a virgin and something more, because not every virgin is hidden, shut off from the occasional sight of men. Then again, Rebecca, on account of her extreme purity, and because she was a type of the Church which she represented in her own virginity, is described in Genesis as Almah, not Bethulah, as may clearly be proved from the words of Abraham’s servant, spoken by him in Mesopotamia: “And he said, O Lord, the God of my master Abraham, if now thou do prosper my way which I go: behold I stand by the fountain of water; and let it come to pass, that the maiden which comes forth to draw, to whom I shall say, Give me, I pray you, a little water of this pitcher to drink; and she shall say to me, Both drink thou, and I will also draw for your camels: let the same be the woman whom the Lord has appointed for my master’s son.” Where he speaks of the maiden coming forth to draw water, the Hebrew word is Almah, that is, a virgin secluded, and guarded by her parents with extreme care. – Jerome, Against Jovinianus, book 1, chapter 32

Your vest is purposely ripped asunder to show what is beneath and while hiding what is repulsive, to reveal what is fair. As you walk, the very creaking of your black and shiny shoes attracts the notice of the young men. You wear stays to keep your breasts in place, and a heaving girdle closely confines your chest. Your hair covers either your forehead or your ears. Sometimes too you let your shawl drop so as to lay bare your white shoulders; and, as if unwilling that they should be seen, you quickly conceal what you have purposely disclosed. And when in public you for modesty’s sake cover your face, like a practised harlot you only show what is likely to please. – Letter 117, chapter 7

But now that you have despised the boastfulness of the world, do not let the fact inspire you with new boastfulness. Harbor not the secret thought that having ceased to court attention in garments of gold you may begin to do so in mean attire. And when you come into a room full of brothers and sisters, do not sit in too low a place or plead that you are unworthy of a footstool. Do not deliberately lower your voice as though worn out with fasting; nor, leaning on the shoulder of another, mimic the tottering gait of one who is faint. Some women, it is true, disfigure their faces, that they may appear unto men to fast. As soon as they catch sight of any one they groan, they look down; they cover up their faces, all but one eye, which they keep free to see with. Their dress is somber, their girdles are of sackcloth, their hands and feet are dirty; only their stomachs — which cannot be seen — are hot with food. Of these the psalm is sung daily: The Lord will scatter the bones of them that please themselves. Others change their garb and assume the mien of men, being ashamed of being what they were born to be — women. They cut off their hair and are not ashamed to look like eunuchs. – Letter 27, to Eustochium

It is usual in the monasteries of Egypt and Syria for virgins and widows who have vowed themselves to God and have renounced the world and have trodden under foot its pleasures, to ask the mothers of their communities to cut their hair; not that afterwards they go about with heads uncovered in defiance of the apostle’s command, for they wear a close-fitting cap and a veil. – Jerome, Letter 147, chapter 5

The word ἀποκάλυψις, which means “revelation,” is a uniquely Scriptural coinage that none of the worldly sages among the Greeks employed. For this reason it seems to me that here the translators of the Septuagint tried to capture the peculiarity of a foreign tongue, just as they did with other words they had rendered from Hebrew into Greek, inventing new words for new concepts. In this instance they used a word which means the unveiling or exposing of something that is covered or concealed. Take the following example as an illustration. Moses spoke with God without hiding his face behind a veil, but when speaking to the Israelites he veiled himself because they were unable to look at his shining face. Let us take another example. When a covering that had been spread out in front of the Ark of the Covenant was removed, previously hidden things were disclosed or, to use the word in question, “revealed.” – Jerome, Commentary on Galatians 1:11-12

A book On Marriage, worth its weight in gold, passes under the name of Theophrastus. In it the author asks whether a wise man marries. And after laying down the conditions — that the wife must be fair, of good character, and honest parentage, the husband in good health and of ample means, and after saying that under these circumstances a wise man sometimes enters the state of matrimony, he immediately proceeds thus: “But all these conditions are seldom satisfied in marriage. A wise man therefore must not take a wife…. Notice, too, that in the case of a wife you cannot pick and choose: you must take her as you find her. If she has a bad temper, or is a fool, if she has a blemish, or is proud, or has bad breath, whatever her fault may be — all this we learn after marriage. Horses, asses, cattle, even slaves of the smallest worth, clothes, kettles, wooden seats, cups, and earthenware pitchers, are first tried and then bought: a wife is the only thing that is not shown before she is married, for fear she may not give satisfaction. – Jerome, Against Jovinianus, book 1, chapter 47

Ambrosiaster (366–384 AD):

Although man and woman are of one substance, yet because the man is the head of the woman, he is placed before her; so that by reason and cause he is greater, not by substance. Therefore, the woman is inferior to the man, for she is part of him; because the origin of the woman is the man: for she is from him, and for this reason, the woman seems subject to the man, so that she may be under his authority. The honor and dignity of the man are said to prevent him from covering his head; for it is inappropriate for the image of God to be concealed (celetur): indeed it should not be hidden (abscondi), for the glory of God is seen in the man. – Ambrosiaster, Patrologia Latina, Vol. 17:252-260

But the woman is the glory of the man.” There is a great difference between the glory of God and the glory of man; for man was made in the image of God, not woman. This image of God is in man because one God made one man; so that just as all things are from one God, so also all men are from one man, so that the invisible God might have the image of one visible man on earth, so that one God in one man might be seen to preserve the authority of one principle, to the confusion of the devil, who, neglecting the one God, wanted to usurp dominion and divinity for himself. This is what the prophet Ezekiel signifies (Ezekiel 28:16), and the Apostle also says: “So that he sits in the temple of God, showing himself as if he were God. (2 Thessalonians 2:4). – Ambrosiaster, Patrologia Latina, Vol. 17:252-260

Therefore, the woman ought to cover her head because she is not the image of God, but to show that she is subject; and because transgression began through her, she ought to have this sign; so that in the Church, out of reverence for the bishops, she should not have her head free, but covered with a veil: nor should she have the power to speak; because the bishop holds the person of Christ. Therefore, as before a judge, so before a bishop…. – Ambrosiaster, Patrologia Latina, Vol. 17:252-260

“Judge for yourselves: is it proper for a woman to pray to God uncovered?” This is why he earlier rebuked them with irony, saying: “I praise you because you remember me in everything and hold fast to the traditions as I delivered them to you” For indeed it was the rule of tradition that women should be veiled in church, [yet] they allowed them to be uncovered in church. Therefore, he now strives to persuade them not by the authority of tradition, which they had neglected, but by nature itself, saying the truth. – Ambrosiaster, Patrologia Latina, Vol. 17:252-260

“Does not even nature itself teach you that if a man has long hair, it is a disgrace to him?” He spoke this according to the law; for it forbids a man to have long hair (Leviticus 19:27). “But if a woman has long hair, it is her glory; for her hair is given to her as a veil.” According to nature, this is an honorable and commendable decree, that a veiled woman may be acceptable and give thanks to God. Therefore, hair is a sign of the veil, so that nature and will may be added. – Ambrosiaster, Patrologia Latina, Vol. 17:252-260

“But if anyone seems to be contentious, we do not have such a custom, nor does the Church of God.” After retaining the reasoning to overcome the contentious, he invokes authority; because Judaism did not have this [contention], as he says: ‘Neither we, nor the Church of God,’ [that is] neither Moses nor the Savior delivered it in this way. – Ambrosiaster, Patrologia Latina, Vol. 17:252-260

Epiphanius of Salamis (310 – 403 AD):

And the Son of God, who had come from above with the two angels, said to Abraham, “And where is Sarah your wife?” For if he did not know where she was, he would not have said “Sarah.” “So Sarah laughed, being inside” This wishes to indicate her modesty—a model for women who want to be truly pious—so that when they receive strangers, they serve them through their own labors, but on account of modesty, they do not show their face to the men. For that blessed woman surely prepared and, after preparing, was not seen in the presence of angels, providing an example of modesty for later generations. But also, in order to show who the one present is, the guest for the hour called the woman by name, because neither her name, nor her form, nor the thought of a person escapes him. – Epiphanius, Ancoratus, chapter 39.4-39.6

Asterius of Amasea (350 – 410 AD):

Give to the widow instead of the harlot; instead of to the woman of the street, to her who is piously secluded. Lavish your gifts upon the holy virgins singing psalms unto God, and hold the shameless psaltery in abhorrence, which by its music catches the licentious before it is seen. – Asterius, Homily 4 (On the Festival of the Calends)

Be bolder with the one who begot you according to God than with your bodily fathers; show him without blushing the hidden things, uncover the secret ailments of the soul as to a physician, displaying a covered (κεκαλυμμένον) wound. He will care both for modesty and for cure; a father’s shame, after all, is more touched by his own offspring’s suffering—for their glory and their disgrace alike are their children’s. – Asterius of Amasea, Homily 13.12.3

For God alone saw the youth’s pure soul—like a pearl enclosed in a sea-shell, like gold lying hidden in the earth, like a lovely bride veiled (καλυπτομένην) behind the curtains of her chamber. When the right moment came and the hidden had to be revealed—when the unknown was to become known, the despised to become admired, the one concealed by the darkness of disaster to shine—a small visitation of the Spirit made the lowly higher than all. – Asterius of Amasea, Homily 6.2.2

The wretched lovers were at a loss, caught between two great pressures: the failure of their desire and the fear of exposure. Their foul heads stitched together a slander; to solve one evil they invented another; to cover (κάλυμμα) their adultery they prepared murder. For when a sinner falls into the beginnings of offenses, he draws along the later lawless deeds as if by the first length of rope. Good begets good; the base beget what is like themselves. – Asterius of Amasea, Homily 6.5.2

The populace, fanned to flame and suffering what crowds usually suffer from a rash impulse, raged in error and was swept along by the elders’ passion. The parents of the defendant lamented; her husband bewailed the disaster; her children wailed on either side of their endangered mother; the whole family was veiled (κεκάλυπτο) in shame. – Asterius of Amasea, Homily 6.5.4

And those “good judges,” allies of chastity, ordered that she—modestly veiled (κεκαλυμμένην) in her mantle (for even amid the turmoil of evils she did not forget her habit of modesty)—be stripped of her proper covering, so that in the courtroom of adultery they might commit adultery with their gaze, soothing their shameful desire by staring at the accused. – Asterius of Amasea, Homily 6.5.5

Women, emulate Susanna; guard your chastity for your husbands as she guarded hers. – Asterius of Amasea, Homily 6.7.4

Firstly, Asterius calls her veil her “modest covering” (σεμνῶς κεκαλυμμένην / semnōs kekalymmenēn), same kind of veil Moses is wearing, a face-veil.

Secondly, he says this form of covering was her “habit of modesty” (ἕξιν τῆς κοσμιότητος). That word “habit” (ἕξιν) means “practice, custom, habit.”

Thirdly, Asterius calls her veil her “proper covering” (εὐπρεποῦς σκέπης / euprepoûs skepēs), using the same word “proper” as Paul uses when he asks, “Is it proper (πρέπω) for a woman to pray unveiled?” That word can also be translated as “becoming, seemly, fitting, appropriate.” Therefore, Asterius connects Susanna’s veil (which covered her face) with the veil Paul says is “proper” for all women to wear.

Fourthly, Asterius tells all women to imitate Susanna.

Augustine (354 – 430 AD):

Every man praying or prophesying with veiled head shames his head;’ and, ‘A man ought not to veil his head, for so much as he is the image and glory of God.’” Now if it is true of a man that he is not to veil his head, then the opposite is true of a woman, that she is to veil her head. – Augustine, On The Holy Trinity, book 12, chapter 7

“We ought not therefore so to understand that made in the image of the Supreme Trinity, that is, in the image of God, as that same image should be understood to be in three human beings; especially when the apostle says that the man is the image of God, and on that account removes the veil from his head, which he warns the woman to use, speaking thus: ‘For a man indeed ought not to veil his head, forasmuch as he is the image and glory of God; but the woman is the glory of the man.’” – Augustine, On The Holy Trinity, book 12, chapter 7

So these lovers, Christ and the Church, were talking to each other. The Church says to him, “Tell me, you whom my soul loves, where you graze, where you lie down in the noon-day.” Why do I want you to tell me where you graze, where you lie down in the noon-day? “Lest perchance I should happen, like a veiled woman, on the flocks of your companions” (Song of Songs 1:7). That’s the reason, she says, why I want you to “tell me where you graze your flock, where you lie down in the noon-day, so that when I come to you I won’t lose my way, lest perchance like a veiled woman I should come upon the flocks of your companions,” that is to say, “I should stumble on flocks that are not yours but belong to your companions.” “Like a veiled woman.” What else can being veiled mean, but so to say hidden, and unknown? – Augustine, Sermon 147A, chapter 3

These [ideas] I drive away with the hand of my heart, from the face of my remembrance; until what I wish for be unveiled, and appear in sight, out of its secret place. – Augustine, Confessions, book 10, paragraph 12

Lust requires for its consummation darkness and secrecy; and this not only when unlawful intercourse is desired, but even such fornication as the earthly city has legalized. Where there is no fear of punishment, these permitted pleasures still shrink from the public eye. Even where provision is made for this lust, secrecy also is provided; and while lust found it easy to remove the prohibitions of law, shamelessness found it impossible to lay aside the veil of retirement. For even shameless men call this shameful; and though they love the pleasure, dare not display it. – Augustine, City of God, book 14, chapter 18

It is usual, therefore, to ask what He means, when He says: “But ye, when ye fast, anoint your head, and wash your faces, that ye appear not unto men to fast.” … Hence, to anoint the head refers to joy; to wash the face, on the other hand, refers to purity: and therefore that man anoints his head who rejoices inwardly in his mind and reason…. For the flesh, which ought to be subject, is in no way the head of the whole nature of man. “No man,” indeed, “ever yet hated his own flesh,” as the apostle says, when giving the precept as to loving one’s wife; but the man is the head of the woman, and Christ is the head of the man…. For thus also he will wash his face [i.e. cleanse his heart], with which he shall see God, no veil being interposed on account of the infirmity contracted from squalor. – Augustine, On Our Lord’s Sermon on the Mount, Book II, chapter 12 (or paragraph 42)

Let your apparel be in no wise conspicuous; and aspire to please others by your behaviour rather than by your attire. Let your head-dresses not be so thin as to let the nets below them be seen. Let your hair be worn wholly covered. Nowhere should your hair be uncovered; let neither carelessness spread it outside the veil nor meticulousness arrange it….. Though a passing glance be directed towards any man, let your eyes look fixedly at none. For, when you go out, you are forbidden not to see men but to desire them or to want to be desired by them. A woman is desired and has desires not only because of touches but also because of affection and glances. Do not say that you have modest minds if you do not have modest eyes, for an immodest eye is the messenger of an immodest heart…. Nor let her who fixes her eyes upon one of the other sex, and takes pleasure in his eye being fixed on her, imagine that the act is not observed by others; she is seen assuredly by those by whom she supposes herself not to be remarked. But even though she should elude notice, and be seen by no human eye, what shall she do with that Witness above us from whom nothing can be concealed? – Augustine, letter 211, chapter 10

… No one is to work in making any article of clothing or for the couch, or any girdle, hooded cloak, or veil (velum) for her own private comfort, but that all your works be done for the common good of all, with greater zeal and more cheerful perseverance than if you were each working for your individual interest. – Augustine, letter 211, chapter 12

The veil-and-hood combination matches Shepherd of Hermas’, Athanasius’, Chrysostom’s, and Jerome’s description of the head-covering.

Nor on such as are drunken, or covetous, or who are lying in any other kind whatever of damnable disease, at the same time that they have profession of bodily continence, and through perverse manners are at variance with their own name, do I impose this great anxiety about pious humility: unless haply in these evils they shall dare even to make a display of themselves, unto whom it is not enough, that the punishments of these are deferred. Nor am I treating of these, in whom there is a certain aim of pleasing, either by more elegant dress than the necessity of so great profession demands, or by remarkable manner of binding the head, whether by bosses of hair swelling forth, or by coverings so loose, that the fine net-work below appears: unto these we must give precepts, not as yet concerning humility, but concerning chastity itself, or virgin modesty. Give me one who makes profession of perpetual continence, and who is free from these, and all such faults and spots of conduct; for this one I fear pride, for this so great good I am in alarm from the swelling of arrogance. The more there is in any one on account of which to be self-pleased, the more I fear, lest, by pleasing self, he please not Him, Who resists the proud, but unto the humble gives grace. – Augustine, On Holy Virginity, chapter 34

But no women, even those who are married, should display their hair, for the apostle commands them even to veil their heads. – Augustine, Letter 245

Nor should you, young women, conclude that this sermon has nothing to do with you. I’m saying these things also to you, after all, not in order to disconcert you, but to advise you as my dearest daughters; shun youthful desires. Think about Susanna if you’re married, about Anna if you’re widows, about Mary if you’re virgins. And don’t go around in public, seeking death as a matter of fact in the house of life, in your eagerness to show off the flowers of your grass to the eyes of men. For all flesh is grass, and the glory of man like the flowers in the grass. So what will you do when the grass withers, and the flowers droop? But do you imagine that the Word of the Lord, which abides forever (Isaiah 40:6-8), and which you now ignore in the proud vigor of your youth, is not easily going to find your ashes? Look, I say it again, I adjure you, shun youthful desires. – Augustine, Sermon 391, chapter 6

Nilus of Ancyra (died 430 AD or 451 AD):

“Explain to me, O beloved of my soul, where you tend sheep, where you rest them at noon, lest I be one surrounded by your companions’ flocks” (Song of Solomon 1:7). I have seen the riches in the treasuries, she says, I have contemplated the divine economy itself, but I want to be allowed to see the deep mysteries of divine foresight by which you reveal your providential care for creation, perhaps along with your shepherd companions, the angels to whom you have entrusted the guidance of things, who have their own flocks. For you shepherd all the world like a great flock. Searching for you throughout creation, wandering at high noon and right in the middle of my own contemplation, I still miss your flock, if though while wandering amidst your companions’ flocks, I became filled with shame and veiled myself, because I when seeking you fell in with strangers. False contemplation, when one fails to find what one is seeking, makes one veil the face when the mistake is realized, no less than a woman who falls in with devious strangers as though she were friends with them is ashamed when she realizes the deceit. – Nilus of Ancyra, Commentary on the Songs of Song, chapter 18 (420 AD)

Cyril of Alexandria (376 – 444 AD):

For, falling into sin, we have wrapped the shame of it like a veil about the face of our soul, and are fast bound by the cords of death. When therefore the Christ shall at the time of the resurrection bring us out from our tombs in the earth, then in very truth does He loosen us from our former evils, and as it were remove the veil of shame, and command that we be let go freely from that time forward. – Commentary on John, book 7

… We believe that He who is begotten of the unbegotten Father is uncreated. We say that He is the head of every man, as the archetype, as I have said, because He appeared as man in the last days and, in human form, is the head of the Church, which is His body. For He is preeminent in all things, according to the word of Paul: ‘Every man who prays or prophesies with his head covered dishonors his head,’ etc. Do you see how the law of nature acts as the arbiter and regulator of each? Boldness is most fitting for men, but for a woman, covering herself is decorous. To show contempt toward the archetype would indeed be an insult to the image. For if man is the glory of God—created as the Scriptures say—then let him preserve the proper boldness before God by having his head uncovered, since it is not fitting by nature for him to be veiled. For the divine is free, without blemish, and entirely adorned in its own glory and wonder. And if the woman is, in the likeness of man, the image of the image and the glory of his glory, nature has ordained for her to grow her hair. Why does that which is secondary contend over grace? For she too is in the image and likeness of God, though with a slight difference by nature, as it is through the man that she reflects the image. Modesty adorns her as much as possible as a living creature and crowns her with her hair. For boldness in a woman is not fitting. Therefore, “she should wear a veil,” he says, “because of the angels.” Clearly this refers to the angels whom God appointed over the churches. They are exceedingly upset whenever anyone neglects proper decorum since they too know the Creator’s will for us. – Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on 1 Corinthians 11, Patrologia Graeca 74:881

Theodoret of Cyrus (393-457 AD):

He has clearly demonstrated that it is appropriate for a woman to veil herself, as seen from her hair. A man, on the other hand, should not veil his head, since he is the image and glory of God, but the woman is the glory of man. Man is the image of God, not with respect to his body nor his soul, but solely with respect to his role as ruler. For, having been entrusted with authority over all things on earth, he is rightly called the image of God….

For this reason, a woman ought to have authority on her head, because of the angels. He called the covering “authority” as a sign that she should show her submission, wrapping herself up (συνεστειλαν), and this is especially for the sake of the angels, who stand over human beings and have been entrusted with their care…. If she considers her hair an honor and its removal a disgrace, then let her understand that she dishonors the one who gave her the hair, if she does not approach with the proper shamefacedness and honor…. “But if anyone seems to be contentious, we have no such custom, nor do the churches of God.” This statement alone is sufficient to refute even those who are excessively argumentative. For he demonstrated that these views are not his own alone but are also shared by all the churches of God. – Theodoret of Cyrus, Commentary on 1 Corinthians 11, Patrologia Graeca 82:212-214

Acts 5:5-6 – When Ananias heard this, he fell down and died. And great fear seized all who heard what had happened. Then some young men came forward, wrapped up (συνεστειλαν) his body, and carried him out and buried him.

This is literally the same word used for enshrouding a corpse for burial. Theodoret is talking about binding up or wrapping the head all the way around. The head is the main thing in question here, but just in case you’re not aware that the faces of corpses are bound up before burial, the Bible tells you that explicitly:

John 11:44: The dead man came out, his hands and feet wrapped with strips of linen, and his face wrapped in a headcloth. Jesus told them, “Unwrap him and let him go!”

Paulinus of Nola (354-431 AD):

You, too, saintly boy so dedicated to the consecrated books, must show a love which spurns all eagerness for a handsome bearing. Christ has compensated you by generously adorning your handsome soul with perennial riches, and He has enriched you both with holy wedding gifts—hope, devotion, fidelity, peace, chastity. Your silver is God’s word, and your gold the Holy Spirit; your jewels are the brightness of good works glowing in your hearts. If shabby raiment is an affront to respected persons, if proud hearts take pleasure in expensive appurtenances, then the example of our saints and the holy simplicity of our first ancestors must dispel such shame. Cast an eye on our parents of old in their abode in Paradise, for whom a single field comprised their whole world. Their covering consisted of sheepskins;? Are we now ashamed that our woven garments are spun from wool? When the beautiful Rebecca came as bride to consecrated Isaac, she was covered simply, with the veil of modesty. We read that she came adorned with no varied jewels, but muffled in a cloak. With this covering the maiden modestly concealed her face, for she feared to confront her bridegroom’s eyes. Will you prefer to these the dancing girl Herodias, who obtained the death of the Baptist as reward for her performing feet? She took such wicked vengeance for her mother’s lust-inspired anger as to obtain as reward for her wantonness a human head—that head from which had been proclaimed to the nations the news that the Lamb of God was at hand. What other than her seductive dress gained this wicked reward won by that ungodly dancer, a daughter worthy of her father? She prevailed on him in this wicked purpose, and against his will, forced him to commit this crime by the enticements of her attractive body, for by her movements and clever feet she won the applause of guests who were worthy of that wicked king’s feast. If sandals of glittering gold had not covered her light ankles or allowed her to sport more wantonly with heels adorned, if she had not worn a garment flowing with curling train or set her hair back to show the jewels on her gleaming brow, she would not have won the depraved hearts of those who watched her, nor cleverly achieved her unspeakable success. – Paulinus of Nola, Poem 25

JEWISH TEACHING ON MODESTY:

Matthew 5:20: “For I tell you, unless your righteousness surpasses that of the scribes and Pharisees, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven.”

Acts 23:6: But when Paul perceived that one part were Sadducees and the other Pharisees, he cried out in the council, “Men and brethren, I am a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee.”

Galatians 1:14: “And I advanced in Judaism beyond many of my contemporaries in my own nation, being more exceedingly zealous for the traditions of my fathers.”

Philippians 3:5-6: “Concerning the law, a Pharisee;concerning zeal, persecuting the church; concerning the righteousness which is in the law, blameless.”

Philo of Alexandria:

But if the charge which is made against her be contested, and if the evidence be doubtful, so as not to incline to either side, then let the two parties go up to the temple, and let the man stand in front of the altar, in the presence of the priest for the day, and then let him state his suspicions and his grounds for them, and let him produce and offer some barley flour, as a species of oblation on behalf of his wife, to prove that he accuses her, not out of insult, but with an honest intention, because he has a reasonable doubt. And the priest shall take the barley and offer it to the woman, and shall take away from her the head-dress on her head, that she may be judged with her head naked (γεγυμνωμένη), and deprived of the symbol of modesty, which all those women are accustomed to wear who are completely blameless…. – Philo, The Special Laws III, chapter X (line 56)

… but if she be convicted by her own conscience, let her hide her face (καταδύεσθω), making her modesty the veil (προκάλυμμα) for her iniquities, for to persist in her impudence is the excess of wickedness. – Philo, The Special Laws III, chapter X (line 54)

And when all these things are previously prepared, the woman with her head uncovered (ἀκατακάλυπτος), bearing the barley flour in her hand, as has been already specified, shall come forward…. – Philo, The Special Laws III, chapter X (line 60)

But there are times when virtue, as if making experiment of those who come to her as pupils, to see how much eagerness they have, does not come forward to meet them, but veiling her face like Tamar, sits down in the public road, giving room to those who are traveling along the road to look upon her as a harlot, in order that those who are over curious on the subject may take off her veil and disclose her features, and may behold the untouched, and unpolluted, and most exquisite, and truly virgin beauty of modesty and chastity. – Philo, On Mating With The Preliminary Studies, chapter XXIII

Market places, and council chambers, and courts of justice, and large companies and assemblies of numerous crowds, and a life in the open air full of arguments and actions relating to war and peace, are suited to men; but taking care of the house and remaining at home are the proper duties of women; the virgins having their apartments in the centre of the house within the innermost doors, and the full-grown women not going beyond the vestibule and outer courts; for there are two kinds of states, the greater and the smaller. And the larger ones are called really cities; but the smaller ones are called houses. And the superintendence and management of these is allotted to the two sexes separately; the men having the government of the greater, which government is called a polity; and the women that of the smaller, which is called oeconomy. Therefore let no woman busy herself about those things which are beyond the province of oeconomy, but let her cultivate solitude, and not be seen to be going about like a woman who walks the streets in the sight of other men, except when it is necessary for her to go to the temple, if she has any proper regard for herself; and even then let her not go at noon when the market is full, but after the greater part of the people have returned home; like a well-born woman, a real and true citizen, performing her vows and her sacrifices in tranquillity, so as to avert evils and to receive blessings. – Philo, The Special Laws III, chapter XXXI

Their wives, who were shut up, and who did not actually come forth out of their inner chambers, and their virgins, who were kept in the strictest privacy, shunning the eyes of men, even of those who were their nearest relations, out of modesty, were now alarmed by being displayed to the public gaze, not only of persons who were no relations to them, but even of common soldiers. – Against Flaccus, chapter 11

Josephus:

But if any one suspect that his wife has been guilty of adultery, he was to bring a tenth deal of barley flour; they then cast one handful to God and gave the rest of it to the priests for food. One of the priests set the woman at the gates that are turned towards the temple, and took the veil from her head, and wrote the name of God on parchment, and enjoined her to swear that she had not at all injured her husband. – Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, book 3, chapter 11, paragraph 6

The first veil was ten cubits every way, and this they spread over the pillars which parted the temple, and kept the most holy place concealed within; and this veil was that which made this part not visible to any. – Antiquities of the Jews, book 3, chapter 6, paragraph 4

Whereupon she was sorely grieved at the injury and violence that had been offered to her, and rent her loose coat (for the virgins of old time wore such loose coats tied at the hands, and let down to the ankles, that the inner coats might not be seen)…. – Antiquities of the Jews, book 7, chapter 8, paragraph 1

Jewish Tradition:

The mishna stated: And who is considered a woman who violates the precepts of Jewish women? One who goes out and her head is uncovered. The Gemara says: The prohibition against a woman going out with her head uncovered is not merely a custom of Jewish women. Rather, it is by Torah law, as it is written with regard to a woman suspected by her husband of having been unfaithful: “And he shall uncover the head of the woman” (Numbers 5:18). And the school of Rabbi Yishmael taught: From here there is a warning to Jewish women not to go out with an uncovered head, since if the Torah states that a woman suspected of adultery must have her head uncovered, this indicates that a woman must generally cover her head. – Ketubot 72a (100 BC – 100 AD)

If she covers her head with her basket [kilta], it seems well and is sufficient. But by precepts of Jewish women (i.e. custom), even if her head is covered by her basket this is also prohibited; she requires a substantial head covering. – Ketubot 72b (100 BC – 100 AD)

Rabbi Asi said that Rabbi Yoḥanan said: If she covers her head with her basket, there is no violation of the prohibition against having an uncovered head. Rabbi Zeira discussed it: Where is the woman that Rabbi Yoḥanan is referring to? If we say he means that she appears this way in the marketplace, this is a violation of precepts of Jewish women, as explained previously. And if you say rather that he means she appears this way in her own courtyard, if so, you have not allowed any daughter of our father Abraham to remain with her husband, since most women are not careful to cover their heads completely inside their own courtyards. Abaye said, and some say that Rav Kahana said: Rabbi Yoḥanan is referring to when she walks from one courtyard to another courtyard or via an alleyway. Although these places are not considered public areas, strangers may still be present in them. – Ketubot 72b (100 BC – 100 AD)

An exposed handbreadth [of skin] in a woman constitutes nakedness…. Along these lines, Rav Ḥisda said: Even a woman’s exposed leg is considered nakedness, as it is stated: “Uncover the leg and pass through the rivers” (Isaiah 47:2), and it is written in the following verse: “Your nakedness shall be revealed and your shame shall be seen” (Isaiah 47:3). Shmuel further stated: A woman’s singing voice is considered nakedness, which he derives from the praise accorded a woman’s voice, as it is stated: “Sweet is your voice and your countenance is alluring” (Song of Songs 2:14). Similarly, Rav Sheshet stated: Even a woman’s hair is considered nakedness, for it too is praised, as it is written: “Your hair is like a flock of goats, trailing down from Mount Gilead” (Song of Songs 4:1). – Berakhot 24a (late 100s AD)

Thou hast ravished my heart, my sister, my bride; thou hast ravished my heart with one of thine eyes (Song of Songs (4:9). In the former times, when women were accustomed to going out “wrapped up”, they would reveal just one eye so they could see their path. And from here is implied that this custom is a proper and modest custom, for the Scripture praises her that she ravished his heart with the one eye. – Torah Temimah (published 1902)

Apropos the daughter of Nakdimon ben Guryon, the Gemara relates what later became of her: The Sages taught: There was an incident involving Rabban Yoḥanan ben Zakkai. When he was riding on a donkey and leaving Jerusalem, and his students were walking after him to learn from him, he saw a certain young woman who was gathering barley from among the dung of the animals of Arabs. She was so poor that she subsisted on the undigested barley within the dung. When she saw him, she wrapped herself in her hair, as she had nothing else with which to cover herself, and stood before him. – Ketubot 66b (100 BC – 100 AD)

On that day their mother saw two of her sons as High Priests. Qimḥit had seven sons; all of them served as High Priests. They sent and asked Qimḥit, what good deeds are in your hand? She told them, [may this or that] come over me if the beams of the roof of my house ever saw the hair of my head or the seam of my undershirt.. They said, all flours are flour but Qimḥit’s flour is fine flour. They recited about her: All the honor of the king’s daughter is inside; gold settings are her garments. – Jerusalem Talmud, Tractate Yoma, Chapter 1, Page 38d, Section 11 (200-220 AD)

“Eastern women take no part in public life. This was true of Judaism in the time of Jesus, in all cases where Jewish families faithfully observed the Law. When the Jewess of Jerusalem left her house, her face was hidden by an arrangement of two head veils, a head-band on the forehead with bands to the chin, and a hairnet with ribbons and knots, so that her features could not be recognized. It was said that once, for example, a chief priest in Jerusalem did not recognize his own mother when he had to carry out against her the prescribed process for a woman suspected of adultery. Any woman who went out without this headdress, i.e., without her face being hidden, committed such an offence against good taste that her husband had the right—and indeed the duty—to put her away from him, and was under no obligation to pay the sum of money to which, on divorce, the wife had a right by virtue of the marriage contract. There were even women so strict that they did not once uncover their head in the house, women like Qimhit, who, it was said, saw seven sons admitted to the high priesthood, which was regarded as divine reward for her extreme propriety: ‘May it [this and that] befall me if the beams of my house have ever seen the hair of my head’ (j. Megillah i.12, 72a. 53; j. Horayoth iii.5, 47d.15; j. Yoma i.i, 38d.9).” – Joachim Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus, chapter XVIII (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1969), pp. 359-360

We see then, that the daughters of the leading houses in Jerusalem, who were strict in observance of the Law, were accustomed to stay within the house before marriage, as far as possible; married women left it only with their faces covered. – Joachim Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus, chapter XVIII (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1969), p. 361

Similar [rules apply when] a man marries a woman without having made any specifications about the matter, and it is discovered that she has one of the blemishes [that mar] a woman’s [appeal to her husband], as outlined above. If the husband neither knew nor heard about this blemish, and did not willingly accept it, he [may] divorce [his wife] without having to pay [her the money due her by virtue of] her ketubah – neither the fundamental requirement nor the additional amount. What is implied? If there is a bathhouse in the city, and he has relatives [in the town], he does not have the prerogative of saying: “I did not know about these blemishes.” [This applies even if] the blemishes were located in hidden places. For we assume that he checks with his relatives [and asks them about his wife’s condition]. [If he marries her nonetheless,] we can assume that he heard [about the blemishes] and accepted them. If the town does not possess a bathhouse, or if he does not have relatives, he may issue a claim with regard to blemishes that are usually unseen. Regular fits of epilepsy are considered to be a blemish that is unseen. By contrast, with regard to physical blemishes that are openly seen, the husband cannot claim [not to have known about the blemish]. For they can be seen by everyone, and it may be assumed that he heard about them and accepted [the matter]. This law applies only in those places where it is customary for women to walk in the marketplace with their faces uncovered, and everyone recognizes each other and will say: “This is so and so’s daughter,” and “This is so and so’s sister,” as in the European cities of the present era. In places where, by contrast, women do not go out to the marketplace at all, and if a girl goes out to the bathhouse in the evening she goes out veiled, and no one will see her except her relatives, a claim may be issued with regard to blemishes that can be openly seen as well. – Maimonides (1138-1204 AD), Mishneh Torah (Marriage), chapter 25

Many women are gathered [to see] her, for all the women present [on the Temple Mount] are obligated to observe her, [as implied by Ezekiel 23:48]: “So that all women will be taught not to follow their lewdness.” Any man who wants to observe her may do so. She stands among [the women] without a cloak or a veil, wearing only her clothes and a cap, as a woman dresses within her home. – Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Woman Suspected of Infidelity, chapter 3

In a place where it is the custom for a woman not to go out into the marketplace with only a simple head covering, but to wear a veil that covers her entire body like a cloak, he (the husband) must provide her as part of her clothing a veil that is (at least) of the lowest quality among all veils. However, if he is a wealthy man, he must provide her according to his wealth, so that she can go out in it to her father’s house, or to a house of mourning, or to a house of feasting. This is because every woman is allowed to go out and visit her father’s house, a house of mourning, and a house of feasting to do an act of kindness for her friends or relatives, so that they will come to her in return. She is not in a prison, prevented from coming and going. However, it is a disgrace for a woman to be going out constantly, sometimes outside and sometimes in the streets. A husband has the right to prevent his wife from doing this and should not allow her to go out more than once or twice a month, according to the need. This is because there is no beauty in a woman except to sit in the corner of her home, as it is written (Psalms 45:14): “All glorious is the daughter of the king within her chamber.” – Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Hilchot Ishut, Chapter 13

Abraham and Sarah:

And yet with all these orders Abram did not put confidence in them, but he took Sarai and placed her in a chest and concealed it amongst their vessels, for Abram was greatly concerned about Sarai on account of the wickedness of the Egyptians. – Book of Jasher, chapter 15, verse 7

And Pharaoh [sent for] Sarai to go to Zoan [with him, and she was] very [careful] with her person so that no [one] would see her. – Genesis Apocryphon (col. 19)

And there was a famine in the land, and Abram went down into Mizraim to be a dweller there, because the famine was strong in the land. And it was, as he approached to enter the limit of Mizraim, and they had come to the river, and were uncovering their flesh to pass over, that Abram said to Sara his wife, Behold, until this I have not beheld thy flesh; but now I know that thou art a woman of fair aspect. It will be, therefore, when the Mizraee see thee, and view thy beauty, that they will say, This is his wife; and they will kill me, and thee will keep alive. – Targum Jonathan ben Uzziel, section 3, chapter 12

VEILING AROUND THE WORLD:

Luke 6:33 – “What credit is that to you? For even sinners do the same.”

Matthew 5:47-48 – “What more are you doing than others? Do not even the Gentiles do the same? You therefore must be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect.”

Ezekiel 5:7 – “You have not even acted according to the laws of the nations!”

Romans 2:14-15 – “For when the Gentiles, who do not have the Law, by nature do what the Law requires, they are a law to themselves, even though they do not have the Law. They show that the work of the Law is written on their hearts, while their conscience also bears witness, and their conflicting thoughts accuse or excuse them.”

1 Corinthians 5:1 – “It is actually reported that there is sexual immorality among you, and such immorality as is not even named among the Gentiles….”

Luke 12:57 – “And why do you not judge for yourselves what is right?”

Greece / Rome:

Dio Chrysostom, Greek (40-120 AD):

And yet what need have we to mention deities? Take Athenodorus, who became governor of Tarsus, whom Augustus held in honour — had he known your city to be what it is today, would he, do you suppose, have preferred being here to living with the emperor? In days gone by, therefore, your city was renowned for orderliness and sobriety, and the men it produced were of like character; but now I fear that it may be rated just the opposite and so be classed with this or that other city I might name. And yet many of the customs still in force reveal in one way or another the sobriety and severity of deportment of those earlier days. Among these is the convention regarding feminine attire, a convention which prescribes that women should be so arrayed and should so deport themselves when in the street that nobody could see any part of them, neither of the face nor of the rest of the body, and that they themselves might not see anything off the road. And yet what could they see as shocking as what they hear? Consequently, beginning the process of corruption with the ears, most of them have come to utter ruin. For wantonness slips in from every quarter, through ears and eyes alike. Therefore, while they have their faces covered as they walk, they have their soul uncovered and its doors thrown wide open. For that reason they, like surveyors, can see more keenly with but one of their eyes. – Dio Chrysostom (40-120 AD), Orations/Speeches, Discourse 33, chapters 48-49

Dicaearchus of Messana, Greek (370/350 – 323 BC):

[Describing the women of Thebes]: The covering (κάλυμμα) of garments (Ἱματίων) upon the head is such that the whole face seems to be enclosed by a mask; for only the eyes show through, while all the rest of the parts of the face are covered by the garments (Ἱματίων). – Dicaearchus of Messana [as quoted in Henry Hammond A Paraphrase and annotations upon all the books of the New Testament, Vol. IV, page 131, also in A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (BDAG), Fourth Edition, page 458]

Valerius Maximus, Roman (14-37 AD):

Terrible also was the matrimonial frown of Sulpitius Gallus, who divorced his wife because he understood that she went abroad with her head uncovered. A rigid sentence, and yet there was some reason for it. “For the law,” said he, “confines you to have no other judges of your beauty but my eyes; for these, adorn yourself; be fair only to these, and believe their judgment. The farther sight of you, where it was needless, must of necessity be suspicious and criminal.” – Valerius Maximus (14-37 AD), Memorable Acts and Sayings, VI.3.10

Menander, Greek (342 BC):

“She’ll be shy when we enter, naturally, and hide behind her veil (παρακαλύψεταί), as women do. But I must upon entering… win her wholly to my will, turn to flattery and tell her that for her alone I live.” [His friend replies]: “She perhaps won’t give in, you understand me, offhand, at the first assault. For she comes as no mere flute-girl nor degraded courtesan….” – Menander (342 BC), Perikeiromene, Act III

Euripides, Greek (424 BC):

Polymestor, I am held in such wretchedness that I blush to meet your eye; for my present evil case makes me ashamed to face you who saw me in happier days, and I could not look on you with unfaltering gaze. Do not then think it ill-will towards you, Polymestor; there is another cause as well, I mean the custom which forbids women to meet men’s gaze. – Euripides (424 BC), Hecuba, lines 968-975

…

Phaedra: Lift my body, raise my head! … O handmaids, lift my arms, my shapely arms. The attire on my head is too heavy to bear; away with it, and let my hair fall over my shoulders.
Nurse: My child, what wild speech is this? O do not say such things in public, wild words bred from frenzy! – Euripides (480–406 BC), Hippolytus, lines 198-214

Phaedra: Alas! What have I done? Where have I strayed, leaving my senses? I was mad, stricken by some demon’s curse. Woe is me! Hide (κρύψον) my head again, nurse. I am ashamed (αἰδούμεθα) of the words I have spoken. Hide (κρύπτε) me then. From my eyes, the tear-drops stream, and for very shame I turn them away. It is painful to come to one’s senses again….
Nurse: I cover (κρύπτω) you. But when, ah when, will death cover (καλύψει) my body? – Euripides (480–406 BC), Hippolytus, lines 239-251

Homer, Greek (700 BC):

And now, from high above in her room and deep in thought, she caught his inspired strains … Icarius’ daughter Penelope, wary and reserved, and down the steep stair from her chamber she descended, not alone: two of her women followed close behind. That radiant woman, once she reached her suitors, drawing her glistening veil across her cheeks (ἄντα παρειάων σχομένη λιπαρὰ κρήδεμνα), paused now where a column propped the sturdy roof, with one of her loyal handmaids stationed either side. – Homer (700 BC), The Odyssey, book 1, line 331-332

When she (Andromache) reached the battlements and the crowd of people, she stood looking out upon the wall, and saw Hector being borne away in front of the city—the horses dragging him without heed or care over the ground towards the ships of the Achaeans. Her eyes were then shrouded as with the darkness of night and she fell fainting backwards. She tore the attiring from her head and flung it from her, the frontlet and hair-net (κεκρύφαλόν) with its plaited band, and the veil (κρήδεμνόν) which golden Aphrodite had given her on the day when Hector had let her forth as his bride from the house of Eetion, after having given countless gifts of wooing for her sake. – Homer (700 BC), The Iliad, Book 22, lines 468-472

Plutarch, Greek (46–120 AD):

[You ask] “Why is it the custom for the women of Chalcedon, whenever they encounter strange men, and especially officials, to veil [only] one cheek?” The Chalcedonians were involved in a war against the Bithynians, to which they were provoked by all kinds of reasons. When Zeipoetes became king of Bithynia, the Chalcedonians, in full force and with the addition of Thracian allies, devastated the country with fire and sword. When Zeipoetes attacked them near the so-called Phalion, they fought badly through rashness and lack of discipline, and lost over eight thousand soldiers. It was only because Zeipoetes granted an armistice to please the Byzantines that they were not completely annihilated at that time. Since, then, there was a great scarcity of men throughout the city, most of the women were forced to consort with freedmen and resident aliens. But those women who preferred to have no husband at all rather than a marriage of this sort, themselves conducted whatever business they needed to transact with the judges or the officials, drawing aside one part of the veil that covered their faces. And the married women, for very shame, followed the example of these, who, they felt, were better than themselves, and also changed to a similar custom. – Plutarch (46–120 AD), The Roman and Greek Questions, number 49

When someone inquired [of King Charillus] why they took their girls into public places unveiled, but their married women veiled, he said, “Because the girls have to find husbands, and the married women have to keep to those who have them!” – Plutarch (46–120 AD), Moralia, Sayings of the Spartans, 232C

“‘Why is it that when parents are carried to the grave, their sons are veiled, while their daughters are bareheaded and with their hair unbound?’” … It is in this regard, that unto sorrow and heaviness is best beseeming that which is extraordinary and unusual: now more ordinary it is with women to go abroad with their heads veiled and covered: and likewise with men, to be discovered and bare headed. So in Greece, whenever any misfortune comes, the women cut off their hair and the men let it grow, for it is usual for men to have their hair cut and for women to let it grow. – Plutarch (46–120 AD), Romane Questions, question 14, 267A

It was a custom among the Egyptian ladies not to wear shoes, that they might stay at home all day and not go abroad. But most of our women will only stay at home if you strip them of their golden shoes, and bracelets, and shoe-buckles, and purple robes, and pearls. Theano, in throwing on her mantle-veil, exposed her forearm. Somebody exclaimed, “A lovely forearm!” and she replied, “But not for the public.” So ought not even the speech, any more than the arm, of a chaste woman, to be common, for speech must be considered as it were the exposing of the mind, especially in the presence of strangers. For in words are seen the state of mind and character and disposition of the speaker. Phidias made a statue of Aphrodite at Elis, with one foot on a tortoise, as a symbol that women should stay at home and be silent. For the wife ought only to speak either to her husband, or by her husband, not being vexed if, like a flute-player, she speaks more decorously by another mouth-piece. – Plutarch (46–120 AD), Moralia, chapters 30-32

For Love brings the soul through the body to truth and the region of truth, where pure and guileless beauty is to be found, kindly befriending its votaries like an initiator at the mysteries. And it associates with the soul only through the body…. But as many as by sober reason and modesty have abated the extravagance of the passion, and left in the soul only a bright glow… these in no long time cease to regard the personal charms of those they love, and study their inward characters, and gaze at one another with unveiled eyes…. – Plutarch (46–120 AD), Moralia, chapter 19

Lucius Cassius Dio, Roman (165–235 AD):

When Nero entered Rome after the murder of his mother, people paid him reverence in public, but in private, so long at least as any could speak their minds with safety, they tore his character to shreds. For one thing, they hung a leathern bag by night on one of his statues to signify that he himself ought to be thrown into one. Again, they cast into the Forum a baby to which was fastened a tag bearing the words: “I will not rear you up, lest you slay your mother.” At Nero’s entrance into Rome they pulled down the statues of Agrippina. But not managing to remove one in time, they threw a cloth over it so it appeared to be veiled, and someone immediately wrote and attached an inscription to the statue: “I am ashamed, but you are not ashamed.” – Dio Cassius, Roman History, Volume 8, Epitome of Book LXII

This went on without change for the nine months occupied in their journey. The prince covered the whole distance to the confines of Italy on horseback, and beside him rode his wife, wearing a golden helmet in place of a veil (καλύπτρας), so as not to defy the traditions of her country [Armenia] by letting her face be seen. – Dio Cassius, Roman History, Volume 8, Epitome of Book LXII

Theognis of Megara, Greek (570-485 BC)

“I hate a bad man and veil my face as I pass him, keeping my heart light as a little bird’s.” – Theognis of Megara (570 -485 BC), Elegies, 579-580

Aristophanes, Greek (446–386 BC):

Lysistrata: “Up to now, through this long war, we kept silent about all those things you men were doing. We were being modest. And you did not allow us to speak up, although we were not happy…. Why should we delay? If you’d like to hear us give some good advice, then start to listen, keep your mouths quite shut, the way we did. We’ll save you from yourselves.”
Magistrate: “Me, shut up for you? A damned woman with a veil (κάλυμμα) on your face too? I’d sooner die!”
Lysistrata: “If it’s the veil that’s the obstacle, here, take mine, it’s yours. Put it over your face, and then shut up!” – Aristophanes (446–386 BC), Lysistrata

Nonnus of Panopolis, Greek (400 AD):

“And Beroë’s companion in birth, the son of Myrrha,
revealed his skill in the hunt. With a thyrsus for a spear,
he donned the spotted skins of freshly slain fawns,
disguising himself as a stranger before Beroë.
As he stood there, the maiden, guarding her restless gaze
from Dionysus, hid her shining cheek beneath her cloak.
And yet this inflamed Bacchus even more, for the servants of Eros
gaze all the more intently upon modest women,
and desire them even more when their faces are hidden.” – Nonnus, Dionysiaca, book 42, lines 346-354

Plato, Greek (427–348 BC):

SOCRATES: Shall I tell you what I will do?
PHAEDRUS: What?
SOCRATES: I will veil (ἐγκαλυψάμενος) my face and gallop through the discourse as fast as I can, for if I see you I shall feel ashamed and not know what to say. – Plato (427–348 BC), Dialogue of Phaedrus, line 237a

SOCRATES: … And this I will attempt, not as before, veiled (ἐγκεκαλυμμένος) and ashamed, but with forehead bold and bare. – Plato (427–348 BC), Dialogue of Phaedrus, line 243b

At various points in Plato’s dialogs, he will describe the argument as if it were a female, and say things like:

Then the argument turned aside and veiled (παρακαλυπτομένου) her face; not liking to stir the question which has now arisen. – Plato (427–348 BC), The Republic, book 6, line 503a

Apollonius Rhodius, Greek (died 295 BC):

The maiden, looking sideways behind her shining veil (καλύπτρην), glanced at him with wandering eyes. Her heart smoldered with pain as he left her sight and her soul crept out of her as in a dream and fluttered in his steps. – Apollonius Rhodius (died 295 BC), Argonautica, book 3, lines 444-445

But when the maiden saw the first light of dawn shining forth, she, with her hands, fastened up her golden hair, which hung neglected and uncombed in its distress. She dried her parched cheeks, and with ambrosial salve she made her skin radiant. She put on a beautiful robe, fastened with well-curved pins; and over her head she threw a silvery veil [καλύπτρην ἀργυφέην]. Then, pacing to and fro throughout the house, she trod the floor in forgetfulness of her woes—the divine sorrows that were at her feet and the others that were still destined to grow hereafter. – Apollonius Rhodius (died 295 BC), Argonautica, book 3, lines 829-838

And with bare feet she sped along the narrow paths, with her left hand holding her robe over her brow to veil her face and fair cheeks, and with her right lifting up the hem of her tunic. – Apollonius Rhodius (died 295 BC), Argonautica, book 4, lines 43-49

And straightway Aeson’s son leapt forth from the thick ambush, lifting his bare sword in his hand; and quickly the maiden turned her eyes aside and covered them with her veil (καλυψαμένη) that she might not see the blood of her brother when he was smitten. – Apollonius Rhodius (died 295 BC), Argonautica, book 4, lines 464-466

But someone might suggest only unmarried virgins wore this face-veil. Nope! Mothers who have been married for a long time are still wearing their kalyptra.

And therein were fashioned two chariots, racing, and the one in front Pelops was guiding, as he shook the reins, and with him was Hippodameia at his side, and in pursuit Myrtilus urged his steeds, and with him Oenomaus had grasped his couched spear, but fell as the axle swerved and broke in the nave, while he was eager to pierce the back of Pelops. And in it was wrought Phoebus Apollo, a stripling not yet grown up, in the act of shooting at mighty Tityos who was boldly dragging his mother by her veil (καλύπτρης), Tityos whom glorious Elate bare, but Earth nursed him and gave him second birth. – Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, book 1, lines 753-762

Polybius, Greek (200–118 BC):

Moreover, an action of Agathocles himself served to heighten the anger of the multitude and of Tlepolemus. For he took Danae, the latter’s mother-in-law, from the temple of Demeter, dragged her through the middle of the city unveiled (ἀκατακάλυπτος), and cast her into prison. His object in doing this was to manifest his hostility to Tlepolemus; but its effect was to loosen the tongues of the people. In their anger they no longer confined themselves to secret murmurs…. – Polybius (200–118 BC), The Histories, Book 15, chapter 27, paragraph 2

Pseudo-Phocylides, Greek (100 AD):

Guard a virgin in closely-shut chambers, and do not allow her to be seen outside the house until marriage; for beauty is a hard thing for parents to keep under control. – Pseudo-Phocylides, The Sentences 215-217

Longinus, Greek (213 – 273 AD):

He carried off his own cousin, though married to another person, and on the very day of the unveiling ceremony (ἀνακαλυπτήρια). Who could have done such a deed, unless he had harlots instead of maidens in his eyes? – Longinus, On The Sublime, chapter 4.5

A maiden was first seen by her husband without a veil on at the wedding ceremony, a vestige of which is still practiced to this day in both the unveiling of the bride and the tradition that the groom should not see the bride at all on the wedding day until she walks down the aisle.

Lysias, Greek (445 – 380 BC):

I think it proper that you should hear the numerous offences that [Simon] has committed against myself. Hearing that the boy was at my house, he came there in a drunken state, broke down the doors, and entered into the area the women use. Within were my sister and my nieces who had lived such well-ordered lives that they were embarrassed even to be seen by their relatives. This man, then, carried insolence to such a level that he refused to go away until the people who appeared on the spot and those who had accompanied him, thinking it a terrible thing to intrude on young women and orphans, drove him out by force. – Lysias (445 – 380 BC), The Orations of Lysias

Chariton, Greek (1st century AD):

There was a public feast of Aphrodite, and almost every woman had gone to her temple. Callirhoe had not appeared in public before, but at the prompting of Love her mother took her to do homage to the goddess. – Chariton, Callirhoe, book 1.1.5

With bloodshot eyes and thick voice he said, ”It is the fact that you have forgotten me that hurts so much,” and he reproached her for the reveling. But she, true daughter of a general and full of pride, angered by the unjust accusation and said. “No one has come reveling to my father’s house. Perhaps your vestibule is used to revels, and your marriage has hurt your boyfriends.” Saying this she turned away and, with her head covered (συγκαλυψαμένη), let her tears pour forth. – Chariton, Callirhoe, book 1.3.6

Then she decided, wishing to be rid of the pirates. And she said, “I am grateful to you, father, for your kindness to me; and may the gods,” she said, “repay you all with worthy recompense. But I consider it an ill omen to use funeral offerings. Keep all these things safely for me; a small ring is enough for me, which I will have even when I am dead.” Then, covering her head (συγκαλυψαμένη), she said, “Lead me, Theron, wherever you wish; for any place is better than the sea and a ship.” – Chariton, Callirhoe, book 1.13.11

And when he drew near to the farmstead, Theron devised a stratagem of this sort. He unveiled (ἀποκαλύψας) Callirhoe and loosened her hair, opened the door, and ordered her to be the first to go in. Leonas and all those inside were suddenly astonished, thinking they had seen a goddess; for there was a story in the countryside that Aphrodite appeared [there]. And while they were struck with amazement, Theron [entered] behind them. – Chariton, Callirhoe, book 1.14.1

I will not submit to marriage. I pray rather for death. They can goad me and burn me. I will not move from here. This place shall be my tomb. If, as you say, your leader is a kind man, let him grant me this favor; let him kill me here!” Again he pleaded with her, but she refused to move, and, covering her head (συγκεκλεμμένη), she sank to the ground and lay there. – Chariton, Callirhoe, book 7.6.9

So then, as he crossed the threshold and saw her lying there, veiled (ἐγκεκαλυμμένην), he was at once troubled in his soul by her breathing and her form, and he became anxious; and he would certainly have recognized her, had he not been so thoroughly convinced that Dionysius had taken Callirhoe away. Approaching quietly, he said, “Take heart, woman, whoever you are, for we will not force you. You shall have the man you want.” While he was still speaking, Callirhoe, recognizing his voice, uncovered her face (ἀπεκαλύψατο), and they both cried out together: “Chaereas!” “Callirhoe!” And embracing each other, they fell down in a faint. – Chariton, Callirhoe, book 8.7

Cicero, Roman (106–43 BC):

Yet, after all, a man who has once passed the border-line of modesty had better put a bold face on it and be frankly impudent. – Cicero (106–43 BC), Letter CVIII (F V, 12) To L. Lucceius

If, however, you have found in the province itself anyone, hitherto unknown to us, who has made his way into intimacy with you, take care how much confidence you repose in him; not that there may not be many good provincials, but, though we may hope so, it is risky to be positive. For everyone’s real character is covered by many wrappings of pretence and is concealed by a kind of veil: face, eyes, expression very often lie, speech most often of all. – Cicero (106–43 BC), Letter V, To His Brother Quintus

Macrobius, Roman (370-430 AD):

On Mount Lebanon there is a statue of Venus. Her head is veiled, her expression sad, her cheek beneath her veil is resting on her left hand; and it is believed that as one looks upon the statue it sheds tears. – Macrobius, Saturnalia, book 1, chapter 21, verse 5

When, replied Disarius, our nature encounters something which makes a decent person feel a sense of shyness or shame, she enters the blood and shrinks away to the inmost part of our being. The blood is disturbed, flows through the body, and colors the skin—hence the blush. Physicists say too that, when one’s nature feels shame or shyness, she spreads out the blood before her to serve as a veil, just as we often see a man hold a hand before his face when he is blushing. And there can be no possible doubt here, for the redness of a blush is simply the color of the blood. – Macrobius, Saturnalia, book 7, chapter 11, verse 4-5

Assyria:

Middle Assyrian Law (1450 – 1250 BC):

Married women, widows, and Assyrian women must not have their heads uncovered when they go out into the street. Daughters of status must be veiled, whether by a veil, a robe, or a [mantle]; they must not have their heads uncovered…. A concubine on the street with her mistress is to be veiled. A hierodule (prostitute) who has gotten married must be veiled on the street, but a single hierodule must have her head uncovered; she may not be veiled. A harlot is not to be veiled; her head must be uncovered. Any man who sees a veiled harlot is to apprehend her, produce witnesses and bring her to the palace entrance. Although her jewelry may not be taken the one who apprehended her may take her clothing. She shall be flogged fifty times and have pitch poured on her head. – Middle Assyrian Law (1450 – 1250 BC), Article 40

The translator left a note here which reads:

“The covering of the head does not refer to a hat or bonnet, but means that women must conceal their entire head by a drapery, as is still the custom in parts of Syria and in Tunis, Algiers and Morocco. See the illustrations in Ploss-Bartels Dag Weib (9th ed. Vol. 1, pp. 527 and 531).”

Persia:

Josephus:

But she, out of regard to the laws of the Persians, which forbid the wives to be seen by strangers, did not go to the king and though he oftentimes sent the eunuchs to her, she did nevertheless stay away, and refused to come…. – The Antiquities of the Jews, 11.191

Vis and Rāmin (100 AD):

A fresh spring breeze arose and stirred the curtains on the litter one by one; it was as if a sword had been drawn from the scabbard, or as if the sun had come out from behind a cloud. The face of Vis came out from behind the veil and Ramin’s heart became its slave at one glance. It was as if a sorceress4 had shown her face to him and robbed his body of life with one look. Even had this been a poisoned arrow, its wound could not have been thus catastrophic; for no sooner had Ramin seen the face of that moonlike beauty than he was as one in whose heart an arrow had suddenly lodged. He fell from his horse as mighty as a mountain, like a leaf that the wind rips from the tree. The brain in his head had begun to boil from the fire in his heart; heart had fled from body and sense from head. Love penetrated his heart by way of the eye, and thus stole his heart through a single glance – Vīs o Rāmīn, chapter 15, page 32

He would say, “How if fair fortune once more showed me the face of that Moon? How if again a wind came and snatched the veil from the face of Vis? How if she heard one of my sighs and covertly showed that cheek out of the veil?” – Vīs o Rāmīn, chapter 32, page 61

When he saw the Nurse alone in the garden it was as if he had seen the face of everlasting Fortune. He greeted her and pronounced many salutations; the Nurse did likewise to him. They inquired of each other’s health like two fond lovers, dearly devoted to each other. Then they took hands and went to a meadow of wild lilies; they spoke together of everything under the sun; their talk was ointment to the wounded heart. Râmïn rent the veil of shame, for his dear soul was hot within him. – Vīs o Rāmīn, page 76

From the moment my eyes fell on that glorious paradise my heart fell a prisoner in Hell. It was as if that was no wind, but a cataclysm; it unveiled to me all of a sudden the face of disaster. – Vīs o Rāmīn, chapter 40, page 77

When Râmïn rose from the Nurse’s embrace her heart was exercised on his behalf; there and then the veil of bashfulness was rent, her former cold words grew warm. She said to him, “Winning speaker that you are! you have carried off the prize from all in oratory. Your heart seeks its desire from everyone; every woman you see is called Vis! Till today you were dear to me; but I am become dearer to you from this day forth. Barriers are down between us; for the arrow of desire has found the target…. – Vīs o Rāmīn, chapter 40, page 84

“How do you presume to take my wife, helpless and weak as you are? Although Vïseh is your sister, how can my wife sit as your spouse? Why do you hold her in your house? I shall listen to no excuse for this deed. Where have you ever seen a wife mated to two husbands? Or two fierce elephants tied on a hair ?… I shall cause a Tigris of blood to flow over the plain. I shall bring Vis, barefooted and unveiled, on foot in front of the army like a dog. I shall so humiliate her that henceforth no one shall dare to make an enemy of the great!” – Vīs o Rāmīn, chapter 51, page 127-129

He sat his sweetheart in the litter, like a royal pearl in a crown; the dust of every road grew like musk and tulips from the scent of the locks and the color of the face of that Moon; though hidden in the veil, she yet shone like a moon two weeks old; though she was a caravantraveler on the road, she was yet like a cypress grown to royal stature; – Vīs o Rāmīn, chapter 58, page 145

The night was dark as a soul forlorn; camphor rained from its musky clouds. The clouds of December spread their canopy; the moon was veiled like the face of Vïs. The sky had fallen to weeping like the eye of Râmïn, in sorrow that the Moon was hidden from it. The moon was hidden in the winter clouds, like the face of Princess Vïs in the seraglio. – Vīs o Rāmīn, chapter 59, page 150

The beauty like a silvery hill took off her shoes and mounted it like a flying falcon; when she gained its top, she leapt from the pavilion onto the roof; the wind carried off the rosy-red tiara from her head. She was left bareheaded and barefooted; her necklace snapped, its pearls scattered. The earrings were quite shattered on her ears; her fair face was left without ornament. Then she hurried to the edge of the garden, her soul full of desire and her heart full of brands; she tied her linen chadur (2) in a cranny, gripped it, and then leapt from the wall. – Vīs o Rāmīn, chapter 67, page 192

The footnote reads: 2. A flowing garment of a single piece of material, worn over the head and
capable of veiling the face.

How sweet all her reproach in the time of union; how sweet when she veiled her face in flirtation; if she withdrew into the veil so much as one day in the week, she enslaved me like a prisoner. – Vīs o Rāmīn, chapter 82, page 272

Shahnameh, The Epic of Kings (977-1010 AD):

Then he sent forth a strong band into the camp of Iran, and veiled women went with them, and he charged them that they bring back Soodabeh unto his arms. – Shahnameh, Chapter 7

And Soodabeh went with the army in a litter clothed with fair stuffs, and encrusted with wood of aloes. And she was veiled that none might behold her beauty, and she went with the men like to the sun when he marcheth behind a cloud. – Shahnameh, Chapter 7

And there stepped within a slave bearing a lamp perfumed with amber, and a woman whose beauty was veiled came after her. – Shahnameh, Chapter 8

Then the Peri-faced answered him, saying, “I am Tahmineh, the daughter of the King of Samengan, of the race of the leopard and the lion, and none of the princes of this earth are worthy of my hand, neither hath any man seen me unveiled. – Shahnameh, Chapter 8

Gurdafrid with fury, and seized the reins of her steed, and caught her by the waist, and tore her armour, and threw her upon the ground. Yet ere he could raise his hand to strike her, she drew her sword and shivered his lance in twain, and leaped again upon her steed. And when she saw that the day was hers, she was weary of further combat, and she sped back unto the fortress. But Sohrab gave rein unto his horse, and followed after her in his great anger. And he caught her, and seized her, and tore the helmet from off her head, for he desired to look upon the face of the man who could withstand the son of Rostam. And lo! when he had done so, there rolled forth from the helmet coils of dusky hue, and Sohrab beheld it was a woman that had overcome him in the fight…. Then Gurdafrid, full of wile, turned unto him her face that was unveiled, for she beheld no other means of safety, and she said unto him… etc. – Shahnameh, Chapter 8

And Gersiwaz did as Afrasiyab commanded, and he tore the veil from off Manijeh, and he caused her to walk barefooted unto the spot where Bijan was hid. – Shahnameh, Chapter 13

India:

“Joining her lotus-like hands and concealing her face the beloved of the Mountain saluted the sage, a heap of lustre… Then the respectable daughter of the Himalaya mountain, whose mind was amazed, saw the sage Narada of wonderful form. The sage also addressed her with (these) affectionate words: ‘Come, O daughter’. But embracing the father, she sat on his lap. The mother said to the respectable girl: ‘O daughter, salute the revered sage, blessed with penance. (Thereby) you will obtain a husband of your liking’. Thus, addressed by her mother, she, having covered her face with her garment and with her slightly trembling, did not utter any word.” – Padma Purana I.43.128b-133b, Tr. N.A. Deshpande.

Then, O sage, afflicted by the cupid and delighted in the heart of hearts, I lifted her veil and stared into the face of Sati. I looked at the face of Sati many a time…. – Shiva Purana, Rudra Samhita 2, Satikhanda, section II, Chapter 19, verses 26-27, Tr. J.L. Shastri

Seeing Śaṅkhacūḍa coming near to her, Tulasī covered her face by her clothing and she, with a smiling countenance, cast repeatedly sidelong glances at him and bent her head low abashed in the expectation of a fresh intercourse. How beautiful was that clear face of her! It put down the autumnal moon in the background. – Devi Bhagavatam, book 9, chapter 18, verses 1-26 , Tr. Swami Vijananda

… The king S’ankhachûda then attracted his dear Tulasî to his breast and took off the veil fully from her face and began to look on that, next moment he kissed on her cheek and lips and gave her a pair of garments brought from the Varuna’s house… – Devi Bhagavatam book 9, chapter 19, verses 1-26, Tr. Swami Vijnananda.

“The one who is artless in manners and has a fair and graceful form is called Lakshamana and is my younger brother-in-law.” Again veiling Her moon-like face with an end of Her sari She looked at Her beloved lord… – Tulsi Ramayana, Ramcharitmanas Doha 116, Chaupai 1-4, Tr. Gita Press

“Dear one! he is our superior, therefore turn aside and veil yourself.” – Mahavira Charitra (the adventures of the great hero Rama), Act 2, Verse 26

A 7th century C.E poet named Magha in his Sisupalavadha, Canto V, verse 17, described the women of Krishna’s household as wearing veils.

“God made you a woman, so that you shall lower your gaze, do not look at men, keep your feet close, cover your head, and do not disclose what the veil conceals.” – Rig Veda, Book 8, Hymn 33, Mantra 19-20, 1500–1000 BC

“O Lord! Are you not indeed enraged, in seeing me on foot in this way out through the city-gate, unveiled and come on foot in the way? O lover of your consorts! Look at all your spouses, who came out, with their veils dropped off. Why are you not getting enraged in seeing this? – Yuddha Khanda 6, Sarga 111, Verses 63-64, 800–500 BC

China:

Pang Tai Ku / Lady Tsao (90 AD):

Fully understand. Boys and girls must not be together. With outside business you have no concern; therefore, go not beyond the court. If it is necessary to go outside, exhibit not your form, but screen your face with a fan or veil. To men who are not with you related, you may not speak. With women and girls of not careful conduct you may not associate. Following virtue, decorum, and uprightness, you so accomplish the end of your being. – Pang Tai Ku/Lady Tsao (90 AD), Instruction for Chinese Women and Girls (translated by Esther E. Baldwin, 1900)

Song Ruozhao (761- 825 AD):

When walking, don’t turn your head; when talking, don’t open your mouth wide; when sitting, don’t move your knees; when standing, don’t rustle your skirts; when happy, don’t exult with loud laughter; when angry, don’t raise your voice. The inner and outer quarters are each distinct; the sexes should be segregated. Don’t peer over the outer wall or go beyond the outer courtyard. If you have to go outside, cover your face; if you peep outside, conceal yourself as much as possible. Do not be on familiar terms with men outside the family; have nothing to do with women of bad character. Establish your proper self so as to become a [true] human being…. Daughters remain behind in the women’s quarters and should not be allowed to go out very often. … Teach them sewing, cooking, and etiquette.… Don’t allow them to be indulged, lest they throw tantrums to get their own way; don’t allow them to defy authority, lest they become rude and haughty; don’t allow them to sing songs, lest they become dissolute; and don’t allow them to go on outings, lest some scandal spoil their good names. – Song Ruozhao (761- 825 AD), Analects for Women, from “Sources of Chinese Tradition,” compiled by Wm. Theodore de Bary and Irene Bloom, 2nd ed., vol. 1