Images / Icons

What is the sin of icon-slavery (iconodulia)?

The sin of making oneself a slave to dead images is a crime against nature and against God. A man ought not to exchange clothing with a woman because it’s demeaning to him as the image of God to wear the token of submission on his head. A man ought not to be ruled by his children because it’s a perversion of God’s created order. A man degrades himself if he has sex with an animal, because an animal is a lower species than man, and man ought not to perform the marital act with a lower species. Crimes against the natural order of creation are the worst kinds of sin, and bowing to images is worse than slavery to one’s children or exchange of clothing with women (which is an abomination), because both women and children are living human beings, but an image is lifeless matter; thus, slavery to an image is an even greater perversion than a man dressing in women’s clothes or a man obeying his wife and children, because a dead image is far inferior to a living woman or child. As the image and representation of God on the earth, a man who bows to a dead image makes an abominable similitude of God becoming enslaved to His own creation (and not even enslaved to a living person made in His image, but to lifeless matter)! This sin is similar to bestiality and earth-worship, which share a hierarchy reversal—humans, who are meant to rule over creation as God’s representatives, instead see inferior things as equals, or (even worse) as masters over them. As the fathers say, a decomposing animal corpse is superior to a lifeless image, because at least the animal used to be alive. Or as Peter says, a pile of dung is worth more than a dead image, because it can at least serve the purpose of manure.

“There is no sin more grievous than idolatry, for it is an impiety against God.“ – Apostolic Constitutions, book 2, chapter 23

“The principal crime of the human race, the highest guilt charged upon the world, the whole procuring cause of judgment, is idolatry.” – Tertullian, On Idolatry, Chapter 1

Definition of Dulia:

The Cathodox call themselves “Iconodules.” On their websites, they claim that the Greek word “dulia” simply means “veneration” or “a respectful greeting.” That is an absurd lie. Dulia means slavery. Here are passages from Scripture using the same word.

Exodus 13:3 – Moses said to the people, “Remember this day, in which you came out from Egypt, out of the house of slavery; for with a strong hand the Lord brought you forth.”

Leviticus 25:39 – “If your brother has grown poor among you, and sells himself to you; you shall not make him to serve as a slave.”

Romans 8:15 – For you didn’t receive the spirit of slavery again to fear, but you received the Spirit of adoption, by whom we cry, “Abba! Father!”

Galatians 4:1 – Now I say that the heir, as long as he is a child, does not differ at all from a slave, though he is master of all….

Galatians 4:6-7 – And because you are sons, God has sent forth the Spirit of His Son into your hearts, crying out, “Abba, Father!” Therefore you are no longer a slave but a son, and if a son, then an heir of God through Christ.

Galatians 4:24-26 – For these are the two covenants: the one from Mount Sinai which gives birth to slavery, which is Hagar— for this Hagar is Mount Sinai in Arabia, and corresponds to Jerusalem which now is, and is in bondage with her children— but the Jerusalem above is free, which is the mother of us all.

Galatians 4:30-31 – Nevertheless what does the Scripture say? “Cast out the bondwoman and her son, for the son of the bondwoman shall not be heir with the son of the freewoman.” So then, brethren, we are not children of the bondwoman but of the free.

Galatians 4:8-9 – However at that time, not knowing God, you were in bondage to those who by nature are not gods. But now after you have known God, or rather are known by God, how is it that you turn again to the weak and beggarly elements, to which you desire again to be in bondage?

Romans 8:21 – … That the creation itself also will be delivered, freed from the slavery of decay into the liberty of the glory of the children of God.

John 8:34 – Jesus answered them, “Amen, I say to you, whoever commits sin is a slave of sin.”

2 Peter 2:18-19 – For when they speak great swelling words of emptiness, they allure through the lusts of the flesh, through lewdness, the few who have escaped from those living in error, promising them freedom, while they themselves are slaves of corruption; for by what a man is overcome, by this he is enslaved.

Matthew 6:19-21, 24 – “Do not lay up for yourselves treasures on earth, where moth and rust destroy and where thieves break in and steal; but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust destroys and where thieves do not break in and steal. For where your treasure is, there your heart will be also…. No one can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and love the other, or else he will be loyal to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and mammon.

Ephesians 6:5 – Slaves, be obedient to those who are your masters according to the flesh, with fear and trembling, in singleness of your heart, as to Christ.

Romans 6:16 – Do you not know that to whom you present yourselves slaves to obey, you are that one’s slaves whom you obey, whether of sin leading to death, or of obedience leading to righteousness?

1 Corinthians 7:20-23 – Let each one remain in the same calling in which he was called. Were you called while a slave? Do not be concerned about it; but if you can be made free, rather use it. For he who is called in the Lord while a slave is the Lord’s freedman. Likewise he who is called while free is Christ’s slave. You were bought at a price; do not become slaves of men.

The Meaning of Bowing:

There is a natural meaning in performing certain physical acts. If you kiss someone, you’re saying you love them. If you spit on someone, you’re saying you hate them. When you bow down to someone, you make yourself inferior to the one who stands over you. It’s a sign of submission, not merely “a respectful greeting!” The meaning of bowing is that you are acknowledging someone as your superior and you declare yourself to be their servant. They are your lord and you are their slave. You make yourself lower than them, allowing them to tower over you, making them appear to be greater than you. This is what a person says by prostrating before another: “I am inferior to you. You are greater than I. I am at your service.”

Revelation 22:8-9 – Now I, John, saw and heard these things. And when I heard and saw, I fell down to worship before the feet of the angel who showed me these things. Then he said to me, “Do not do that. For I am your fellow servant, and of your brethren the prophets, and of those who keep the words of this book. Worship God.”

Genesis 18:1-3 – And God appeared to him by the oak of Mamre, as he sat by the door of his tent at noon. And he lifted up his eyes and behold, three men stood before him; and having seen them he ran to meet them from the door of his tent, and he bowed to the ground. And he said,  “My lords, if indeed I have found grace in your sight, do not pass by your servant.”

Genesis 19:1-2 – And the two angels came to Sodom at evening. And Lot sat by the gate of Sodom, and Lot having seen them, rose up to meet them, and he bowed with his face to the ground, and said, “My lords, turn aside to the house of your servant.”

Genesis 37:5-8 – And Joseph dreamed a dream, and reported it to his brothers. And he said to them, “Hear this dream which I have dreamed. I dreamed that we were binding sheaves in the middle of the field, and my sheaf stood up straight, and your sheaves turned around and bowed down to my sheaf.” And his brothers said to him, “Shall you indeed reign over us, or shall you indeed be lord over us?” And they continued still more to hate him because of his dreams and because of his words.

Genesis 23:1-16 – Sarah lived one hundred and twenty-seven years; these were the years of Sarah’s life. And Sarah died in Kiriath-Arba, that is Hebron, in the land of Canaan. And Abraham came to mourn for Sarah and to weep for her. And Abraham rose up from before his dead and spoke to the sons of Heth, saying: “I am a stranger and a sojourner among you; give me possession of a burying place among you, so that I may bury my dead from before me.” And the sons of Heth answered Abraham, saying to him: “Hear us, my lord; you are a prince of God among us. Bury your dead in the choicest of our tombs; none of us will withhold his tomb from you, so that you may bury your dead.” Then Abraham rose up and bowed himself before the people of the land, the sons of Heth, and he spoke with them, saying: “If you are willing that I should bury my dead from before me, hear me, and intercede for me with Ephron the son of Zohar, that he may give me the cave of Machpelah, which he has, which is at the end of his field. For the full price let him give it to me in your midst, as a possession for a burying place.” Now Ephron was sitting in the midst of the sons of Heth. And Ephron the Hittite answered Abraham in the hearing of the sons of Heth, of all who entered the gate of his city, saying: “No, my lord, hear me: I give you the field and the cave that is in it; in the sight of the sons of my people I give it to you; bury your dead.” Then Abraham bowed before the people of the land, and he spoke to Ephron in the hearing of the people of the land, saying: “If only you would hear me — I will give you the price of the field; take it from me, and I will bury my dead there.” And Ephron answered Abraham, saying to him: “My lord, hear me — the land is worth four hundred shekels of silver; what is that between me and you? Bury your dead.”

1 Kings 18:7 – And it came to pass, as Obadiah went on the way, Elijah met him; and he recognized him, and fell upon his face, and said, “Is it you, my lord Elijah?”

Genesis 27:28 – “Let peoples serve you, and nations bow down to you. Be lord over your brothers. Let your mother’s sons bow down to you. Cursed be everyone who curses you. Blessed be everyone who blesses you.”

Psalm 72:11 – Yes, all kings shall bow down before him. All nations shall serve (doulia) him.

Genesis 33:3 – “He himself went on before them, bowing himself to the ground seven times, until he came near to his brother.”

Genesis 33:8 – And he said, “What are these things to you, all these companies that I have met?” And he said, “That your servant might find favor in your sight, my lord.”

Genesis 33:14 – “Let my lord go on before his servant, and I shall proceed slowly, slowly on the road, according to the ease of the journey before me, and according to the pace of the children, until I come to my lord to Seir.”

Genesis 42: 6 So Joseph’s brothers came and bowed down before him with their faces to the ground…. 9 Then Joseph remembered the dreams he dreamed about them, and said to them, “You are spies, come to map out the roads to our country.” But they said to him, “No, my lord, your servants have come to buy food.”

Genesis 50:18 – Then his brothers also went and fell down before his face, and they said, “behold, we are your servants.”

1 Samuel 24:8 – Afterward David also arose and went out of the cave, and called after Saul, ‘My lord the king.’ And when Saul looked behind him, David bowed with his face to the earth and paid homage.

2 Samuel 9:6 – And Mephibosheth the son of Jonathan, son of Saul, came to David and fell on his face and paid homage. And David said, “Mephibosheth!” And he answered, “Behold, I am your servant.”

Him did Joshua the Son of Nun see, as the captain of the Lord’s host, in armour, for their assistance against Jericho; to whom he fell down, and worshipped, as a servant does to his master. – Apostolic Constitutions, book 5, chapter 20

For he who worships is naturally lower and weaker than that which is worshipped. – Lactantius, The Divine Institutes, Book 2, chapter 18

In this way, we also have Jesus Christ as an advocate, not in the sense that He prostrates Himself before the Father on our behalf, or falls down in a servant-like (δουλικῶς) manner. Away with such a truly slavish and unworthy suspicion of the Spirit! – Gregory Nazianzus, Fourth Theological Oration, chapter 14

It was not therefore consonant to reason…. that they should deem themselves (although possessed of so great a rational light of knowledge, and of the true light, and the light of the world, and the light of men) to be somehow inferior to them, and to bow down to them [the sun and moon]…. – Origen, Against Celsus, Book 5, Chapter 10

The Cathodox claim that the meaning of doulia isn’t REALY “slave,” but John of Damascus says one of the ways they venerate images is “in the same way as slaves (δοῦλοι) bow to their masters (δεσπόταις).” He sees “doulia” as having the opposite meaning of “master” (despot), just as Paul also says in Titus 2:9: “Slaves (Δούλους), be submissive to your masters (δεσπόταις).”

The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodoxy says: The word iconodule comes from the Greek eikonodoulus, meaning “one who serves images.”

SCRIPTURES:

Exodus 20:4-5 – “You shall not make for yourselves an idol (ειδωλον), nor any likeness (ομοιωμα) of anything, either in heaven above or in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down (προσκυνεω) to them, nor serve (λατρευω) them; for I am the Lord your God, a jealous God, visiting the sins of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation to those who hate me.”

• In the Scriptures, God doesn’t just forbid his people from bowing to images of pagan deities, but also from bowing to anything in creation, even the sun and moon. That is the definition of idolatry: serving creation. Living human beings are the only ones we can lawfully bow to and serve, because they’re made in the image of God.

Leviticus 26:1 – “You shall not make for yourselves a handmade image (χειροποιητος), or a carved image (γλυπτος), or a sacred pillar, or a sculpted stone in your land, to bow down (προσκυνεω) to it; for I am the Lord your God.”

Deuteronomy 4:12–19 – “And the Lord spoke to you out of the middle of the fire a voice of words, which you heard: and you saw no form (ομοιωμα), only you heard a voice. And he announced to you his covenant, which he commanded you to keep, even the ten commandments; and he wrote them on two tablets of stone. And the Lord commanded me at that time, to teach you statutes and judgments, that you should do them on the land, into which you go to inherit it. And take good heed to your souls, for you saw no form (ομοιωμα) on the day in which the Lord spoke to you in Horeb on the mountain out of the middle of the fire, lest you sin, and make for yourselves a image (εικων), or any likeness (ομοιωμα), the likeness of male or female, the likeness of any animal of those that are on the earth, the likeness of any winged bird which flies under heaven, the likeness of any reptile which creeps on the earth, the likeness of any fish of those which are in the waters under the earth; and lest having looked up to the sky, and having seen the sun and the moon and the stars, and all the heavenly bodies, you should go astray and worship (προσκυνεω) them, and serve (λατρευω) them, which the Lord your God has assigned to all the nations under heaven.”

Jeremiah 10:14-15 – Everyone is dull-hearted, without knowledge; Every metalsmith is put to shame by his carved image (γλυπτος); For his molded image is falsehood, And there is no breath in them. They are futile, a work of errors; In the time of their punishment they shall perish.

Isaiah 46:6-8 – They lavish gold out of the bag, And weigh silver on the scales; They hire a goldsmith, and he makes it a god; They stoop down, yes, they worship (προσκυνεω). They bear it on the shoulder, they carry it and set it in its place, and it stands; from its place it shall not move. Though one cries out to it, yet it cannot answer, nor save him out of his trouble. Remember this and stand firm, recall it to mind, you transgressors.

Habakkuk 2:18-19 – “What profit is an idol when its maker has shaped it, a metal image, a teacher of lies? For its maker trusts in his own creation when he makes speechless idols! Woe to him who says to a wooden thing, Awake; to a silent stone, Arise! Can this teach? Behold, it is overlaid with gold and silver, and there is no breath at all in it.

Deuteronomy 4:28 – “And there you will serve (λατρευω) gods of wood and stone, the work of human hands, that neither see, nor hear, nor eat, nor smell.”

Psalm 115:4-8 – Their idols are silver and gold, the work of men’s hands. They have mouths, but they speak not: they have eyes, but they see not: They have ears, but they hear not: they have noses, but they smell not: They have hands, but they handle not: they have feet, but they walk not: neither do they speak through their throat. They that make them are like them; so is every one that trusts in them.

Jeremiah 10:3-11 – For the customs of the peoples are futile; for one cuts a tree from the forest, the work of the hands of the workman, with the ax. They decorate it with silver and gold; They fasten it with nails and hammers so that it will not topple. They are upright, like a palm tree, and they cannot speak; They must be carried, because they cannot go by themselves. Do not be afraid of them, for they cannot do evil, nor can they do any good. Inasmuch as there is none like You, O Lord (You are great, and Your name is great in might), Who would not fear You, O King of the nations? For this is Your rightful due. For among all the wise men of the nations, and in all their kingdoms, there is none like You. But they are altogether dull-hearted and foolish, instructed by wood. Silver is beaten into plates; it is brought from Tarshish, and gold from Uphaz, the work of the craftsman, and of the hands of the metalsmith; blue and purple are their clothing; they are all the work of skillful men. But the Lord is the true God; He is the living God and the everlasting King. At His wrath the earth will tremble, and the nations will not be able to endure His indignation. Thus you shall say to them: “The gods that have not made the heavens and the earth shall perish from the earth and from under these heavens.”

Isaiah 44:9-20 – Those who fashion and carve images are all worthless, and their precious things shall not profit; they are their own witnesses; they neither see nor know, that they may be ashamed. Who would form a god or mold an image that profits him nothing? Surely all his companions would be ashamed; and the workmen, they are mere men. Let them all be gathered together, let them stand up; yet they shall fear, they shall be ashamed together. The blacksmith with the tongs works one in the coals, fashions it with hammers, and works it with the strength of his arms. Even so, he is hungry, and his strength fails; he drinks no water and is faint. The craftsman stretches out his rule, He marks one out with chalk; He fashions it with a plane, He marks it out with the compass, And makes it like the figure of a man, according to the beauty of a man, that it may remain in the house. He cuts down cedars for himself, And takes the cypress and the oak; He secures it for himself among the trees of the forest. He plants a pine, and the rain nourishes it. Then it shall be for a man to burn, For he will take some of it and warm himself; Yes, he kindles it and bakes bread; Indeed he makes a god and worships (προσκυνεω) it; He makes it a carved image, and falls down to it. He burns half of it in the fire; With this half he eats meat; He roasts a roast, and is satisfied. He even warms himself and says, “Ah! I am warm, I have seen the fire.” And the rest of it he makes into a god, his carved image. He falls down before it and worships (προσκυνεω) it, Prays to it and says, “Deliver me, for you are my god!” They do not know nor understand; For He has shut their eyes, so that they cannot see, And their hearts, so that they cannot understand. And no one considers in his heart, Nor is there knowledge nor understanding to say, “I have burned half of it in the fire, Yes, I have also baked bread on its coals; I have roasted meat and eaten it; And shall I make the rest of it an abomination? Shall I fall down before a block of wood?” He feeds on ashes; A deceived heart has turned him aside; And he cannot deliver his soul, Nor say, “Is there not a lie in my right hand?”

1 Corinthians 12:2 – You know that when you were heathen, you were led away to those mute idols, however you might be led.

Acts 7:41 – They made a calf in those days, and brought a sacrifice to the idol, and rejoiced in the works of their hands.

Psalm 135:15 – The idols of the heathen are silver and gold, the work of men’s hands.

Isaiah 10:10-11 – Cry aloud, carved images in Jerusalem and in Samaria! For in that way I did to Samaria and her handmade things, so I will do also to Jerusalem and to her images.

Deuteronomy 27:15 – “Cursed is the man who makes a carved or molten image, an abomination to the Lord, the work of the hands of the craftsman, and sets it up in secret.” All the people shall answer and say, “Amen.”

Deuteronomy 28:64 – The Lord will scatter you among all peoples, from one end of the earth even to the other end of the earth; and there you shall serve other gods, which you have not known, neither you nor your fathers, even wood and stone.

Jeremiah 25:6 – “Do not go after other gods to serve and worship them, or provoke me to anger with the work of your hands, then I will do you no harm.”

Psalm 96:7 – Let all that worship (προσκυνεω) carved images be ashamed, who boast of their idols; worship (προσκυνεω) him, all ye his angels.

Isaiah 2:8-9 – And the land was filled with abominations, the works of their hands, and they worshiped (προσκυνεω) the things their fingers made. And a person bowed (προσκυνεω), and a man was made low, and I will certainly not forgive them.

Revelation 9:20-21 – The rest of mankind, who were not killed by these plagues, did not repent of the works of their hands, so as not to worship (προσκυνέω) demons, and the idols of gold and of silver and of brass and of stone and of wood, which can neither see nor hear nor walk; and they did not repent of their murders nor of their sorceries nor of their immorality nor of their thefts.

Baruch 6:4-7 – Now in Babylon you will see gods made of silver and gold and wood, which people carry on their shoulders, and which cause the heathen to fear. So beware of becoming at all like the foreigners or of letting fear for these gods possess you when you see the multitude before and behind them worshiping (προσκυνεω) them. But say in your heart, “It is you, O Lord, whom we must worship.” For my angel is with you, and he is watching over your lives.

Baruch 6:8-16 – Their tongues are smoothed by the carpenter, and they themselves are overlaid with gold and silver; but they are false and cannot speak. People take gold and make crowns for the heads of their gods, as they might for a girl who loves ornaments. 1Sometimes the priests secretly take gold and silver from their gods and spend it on themselves, or even give some of it to the prostitutes on the terrace. They deck their gods out with garments like human beings—these gods of silver and gold and wood that cannot save themselves from rust and corrosion. When they have been dressed in purple robes, their faces are wiped because of the dust from the temple, which is thick upon them. One of them holds a scepter, like a district judge, but is unable to destroy anyone who offends it. Another has a dagger in its right hand, and an ax, but cannot defend itself from war and robbers. From this it is evident that they are not gods; so do not fear them.

Isaiah 42:17 – They are turned back and utterly put to shame, who trust in carved idols, who say to metal images, “You are our gods.”

• They say an icon of Jesus IS Jesus, and that the icon is divine. You say, “God became matter, so matter is divine.”

Baruch 6:17-23 – For just as someone’s dish is useless when it is broken, so are their gods when they have been set up in the temples. Their eyes are full of the dust raised by the feet of those who enter. And just as the gates are shut on every side against anyone who has offended a king, as though under sentence of death, so the priests make their temples secure with doors and locks and bars, in order that they may not be plundered by robbers. They light more lamps for them than they light for themselves, though their gods can see none of them. They are just like a beam of the temple, but their hearts, it is said, are eaten away when crawling creatures from the earth devour them and their robes. They do not notice when their faces have been blackened by the smoke of the temple. Bats, swallows, and birds alight on their bodies and heads; and so do cats. From this you will know that they are not gods; so do not fear them.

Baruch 6:24-27 – As for the gold that they wear for beauty—it will not shine unless someone wipes off the tarnish; for even when they were being cast, they did not feel it. They are bought without regard to cost, but there is no breath in them. Having no feet, they are carried on the shoulders of others, revealing to humankind their worthlessness. And those who serve (λατρευω) them are put to shame because, if any of these gods falls to the ground, they themselves must pick it up. If anyone sets it upright, it cannot move itself; and if it is tipped over, it cannot straighten itself. Gifts are placed before them just as before the dead.

Baruch 6:36-39 – They cannot save anyone from death or rescue the weak from the strong. They cannot restore sight to the blind; they cannot rescue one who is in distress. They cannot take pity on a widow or do good to an orphan. These things that are made of wood and overlaid with gold and silver are like stones from the mountain, and those who serve (λατρευω) them will be put to shame.

Baruch 6:44-47 – Whatever is done for these idols is false. Why then must anyone think that they are gods, or call them gods? They are made by carpenters and goldsmiths; they can be nothing but what the artisans wish them to be. Those who make them will certainly not live very long themselves; how then can the things that are made by them be gods? They have left only lies and reproach for those who come after.

Baruch 6:50-51 – Since they are made of wood and overlaid with gold and silver, it will afterward be known that they are false. It will be manifest to all the nations and kings that they are not gods but the work of human hands, and that there is no work of God in them.

Wisdom 13:5-19 – For from the greatness and beauty of created things comes a corresponding perception of their Creator. Yet these men are little to be blamed, for perhaps they go astray while seeking God and desiring to find him. For as they live among his works they keep searching, and they trust in what they see, because the things that are seen are beautiful. Yet again, not even they are to be excused; for if they had the power to know so much that they could investigate the world, how did they fail to find sooner the Lord of these things? But miserable, with their hopes set on dead things, are the men who give the name “gods” to the works of men’s hands, gold and silver fashioned with skill, and likenesses of animals, or a useless stone, the work of an ancient hand. A skilled woodcutter may saw down a tree easy to handle and skillfully strip off all its bark, and then with pleasing workmanship make a useful vessel that serves life’s needs, and burn the castoff pieces of his work to prepare his food, and eat his fill. But a castoff piece from among them, useful for nothing, a stick crooked and full of knots, he takes and carves with care in his leisure, and shapes it with skill gained in idleness; he forms an image (εικων) of a man, or of some worthless animal, giving it a coat of red paint and coloring its surface red and covering every blemish in it with paint; then he makes for it a niche that befits it, and sets it in the wall, and fastens it there with iron. So he takes thought for it, that it may not fall, because he knows that it cannot help itself, for it is only an image (εικων) and has need of help. When he prays about possessions and his marriage and children, he is not ashamed to address a lifeless thing. For health he appeals to a thing that is weak; for life he prays to a thing that is dead; for aid he entreats a thing that is utterly inexperienced; for a prosperous journey, a thing that cannot take a step; for money-making and work and success with his hands he asks strength of a thing whose hands have no strength.

Wisdom 14:12-31 – For the idea of making idols was the beginning of fornication, and the invention of them was the corruption of life, for neither have they existed from the beginning nor will they exist for ever. For through the vanity of men they entered the world, and therefore their speedy end has been planned. For a father, consumed with grief at an untimely bereavement, made an image (εικων) of his child, who had been suddenly taken from him; and he now honored as a god what was once a dead human being, and handed on to his dependents secret rites and initiations. Then the ungodly custom, grown strong with time, was kept as a law, and at the command of monarchs graven images were honored (τιμαω). When men could not honor monarchs in their presence, since they lived at a distance, they imagined their appearance far away, and made a visible image (εικων) of the king whom they honored (τιμαω), so that by their zeal they might flatter the absent one as though present. Then the ambition of the craftsman impelled even those who did not know the king to intensify their worship (θρησκεια). For he, perhaps wishing to please his ruler, skilfully forced the likeness to take more beautiful form, and the multitude, attracted by the charm of his work, now regarded as an object of worship (σέβασμα) the one whom shortly before they had honored as a man. And this became a hidden trap for mankind, because men, in bondage to misfortune or to royal authority, bestowed on objects of stone or wood the name that ought not to be shared. Afterward it was not enough for them to err about the knowledge of God, but they live in great strife due to ignorance, and they call such great evils peace…. they no longer keep either their lives or their marriages pure, but they either treacherously kill one another, or grieve one another by adultery, and all is a raging riot of blood and murder, theft and deceit, corruption, faithlessness, tumult, perjury, confusion over what is good, forgetfulness of favors, pollution of souls, sex perversion, disorder in marriage, adultery, and debauchery. For the worship of idols not to be named is the beginning and cause and end of every evil. For their worshipers either rave in exultation, or prophesy lies, or live unrighteously, or readily commit perjury; for because they trust in lifeless idols they swear wicked oaths and expect to suffer no harm.

Wisdom 15:4-8 – For neither has the evil intent of human art misled us, nor the fruitless toil of painters, a form (εἶδος) stained with varied colors, whose appearance arouses yearning in fools, so that they desire the lifeless form (εἶδος) of a dead image (εικων). Lovers of evil things and fit for such objects of hope are those who either make or desire or worship (σέβασμα) them.

Wisdom 15:9-13 – But he is not concerned that he is destined to die or that his life is brief, but he competes with workers in gold and silver, and imitates workers in copper; and he counts it his glory that he molds counterfeit gods. His heart is ashes, his hope is cheaper than dirt, and his life is of less worth than clay, because he failed to know the one who formed him and inspired him with an active soul and breathed into him a living spirit. But he considered our existence an idle game, and life a festival held for profit, for he says, “One must get money however one can, even by base means.” For this man, more than all others, knows that he sins when he makes from earthy matter fragile vessels and graven images.

Wisdom 15:15-17 – For they thought that all their heathen idols were gods, though these have neither the use of their eyes to see with, nor nostrils with which to draw breath, nor ears with which to hear, nor fingers to feel with, and their feet are of no use for walking. For a man made them, and one whose spirit is borrowed formed them; for no man can form a god which is similar to himself. He is mortal, and what he makes with lawless hands is dead, for he is better than the objects he worships (σεβάσματα), since he has life, but they never have.

Daniel 3:13 – There are certain Jews, whom you have appointed over the affairs of the province of Babylon: Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego; these men, O king, have disregarded you; they don’t serve your idol (εἰδώλῳ), nor bow to the golden image (εἰκόνι) which you have set up.”

Daniel 3:18 – “But if not, be it known to you, O king, that we will not serve your idol (εἰδώλῳ), nor bow to the golden image (εἰκόνι) which you have set up.”

Daniel 14:3-5 (Bel and the Dragon 1:27) – And there was an idol named Bel, which the Babylonians worshiped (ἐσέβοντο). Every day there were spent on it twelve measures of fine flour, and four sheep, and six vessels of oil. And the king worshiped (ἐσέβετο) it and went every day to bow down (προσκυνεῖν) to it; but Daniel bowed down (προσεκύνει) to his own God. And the king said to him, “Why do you not bow down (προσκυνεῖς) to Bel?” And he said, “Because I do not worship (σέβομαι) idols made by hands, but the living God, who created heaven and earth and has dominion over all flesh.”

Romans 1: 21-25 – For although they knew God, they did not honor him as God or give thanks to him, but they became futile in their thinking, and their foolish hearts were darkened. Claiming to be wise, they became fools, and exchanged the glory of the immortal God for an image (εἰκόν) resembling mortal man and birds and animals and creeping things. Therefore God gave them up in the lusts of their hearts to impurity, to the dishonoring of their bodies among themselves, because they exchanged the truth about God for a lie and worshiped (σέβασμα) and served (λατρευω) the created thing rather than (παρὰ) the Creator, who is blessed forever!

Acts 17:16, 22-25 – Now while Paul waited for them at Athens, his spirit was provoked within him when he saw that the city was given over to idols….. Then Paul stood in the midst of the Areopagus and said, “Men of Athens, I perceive that in all things you are very religious; for as I was passing through and considering the objects of your worship (σεβάσματα), I even found an altar with this inscription: TO THE UNKNOWN GOD. Therefore, the One whom you worship (εὐσεβέω) without knowing, Him I proclaim to you: God, who made the world and everything in it, since He is Lord of heaven and earth, does not dwell in temples made with hands. Nor is He worshiped with men’s hands, as though He needed anything, since He gives to all life, breath, and all things.

Acts 17:29-31 – Therefore, since we are the offspring of God, we ought not to think that the Divine Nature is like gold or silver or stone, something shaped by art and man’s devising. Truly, these times of ignorance God overlooked, but now commands all men everywhere to repent, because He has appointed a day on which He will judge the world in righteousness by the Man whom He has ordained.

Isaiah 40: 17-25 – All the nations are as nothing and are counted as nothing. To whom then will you liken the Lord, and with what likeness (ομοιωμα) will you compare Him? Has a craftsman made an image (εικων), or a goldsmith, having melted gold, portrayed it? Has he fashioned it as a likeness (ομοιωμα) of Him? For a craftsman selects a piece of wood that will not rot; he cleverly seeks how he may set up his image (εικων) so that it will not be shaken. Have you not known? Have you not heard? Has it not been told you from the beginning? Have you not understood from the foundations of the earth? Who holds the circle of the earth, and those who dwell in it are like grasshoppers? Who stretches out the heavens like a curtain and spreads them out like a tent to dwell in, He who gives rulers over to nothingness? He has made the earth as nothing. For they shall certainly not plant, nor shall they sow, nor shall their root be fixed in the earth; He has blown upon them and they have withered, and a whirlwind shall take them away like stubble. “Now then, to what will you liken Me, that I should be exalted?” says the Holy One.

Isaiah 42:6-8 – I the Lord God have called thee in righteousness, and will hold thine hand, and will strengthen thee: and I have given thee for the covenant of a race, for a light of the Gentiles: to open the eyes of the blind, to bring the bound and them that sit in darkness out of bonds and the prison-house. I am the Lord God: that is my name: I will not give my glory to another, nor my praises to graven images.

Galatians 4:8-9 – However at that time, not knowing God, you were in slavery (doulia) to those who by nature are not gods. But now after you have known God, or rather are known by God, how is it that you turn again to the weak and beggarly elements (stoicheion), to which you desire again to be in bondage (doulia)?

1 Corinthians 10: 14-15, 19-22 – Therefore, my beloved, flee from idolatry. I speak as to wise men; judge for yourselves what I say…. What am I saying then? That an idol is anything, or what is offered to idols is anything? Rather, that the things which the Gentiles sacrifice they sacrifice to demons and not to God, and I do not want you to have fellowship with demons. You cannot drink the cup of the Lord and the cup of demons; you cannot partake of the Lord’s table and of the table of demons. Or do we provoke the Lord to jealousy? Are we stronger than He?

1 John 5:21 – Little children, keep yourselves from idols.

2 Corinthians 5:16-17 –Therefore, from now on, we regard no one according to the flesh. Even though we have known Christ according to the flesh, yet now we know Him thus no longer.

1 John 3:1-3 – Behold what manner of love the Father has bestowed on us, that we should be called children of God! Therefore the world does not know us, because it did not know Him. Beloved, now we are children of God; and it has not yet been revealed what we shall be, but we know that when He is revealed, we shall be like Him, for we shall see Him as He is. 3 And everyone who has this hope in Him purifies himself, just as He is pure.

Philippians 3:20-21 – But our conversation is in heaven, from whence also we look for the Saviour, the Lord Jesus, who shall transfigure the body of our humiliation conformable to the body of His glory, even as He is able according to the working of His own power.

Revelation 21:23 – And the city has no need of the sun or of the moon to shine on it, for the glory of God has illumined it, and the Lamb is its lamp.

 Colossians 3:1–2 – Set your minds on the things above, where Christ is seated at the right hand of God

2 Corinthians 5:7 – For we walk by faith, not by sight.

2 Corinthians 4:18 – We do not look at the things which are seen, but at the things which are not seen. For the things which are seen are temporary, but the things which are not seen are eternal.

Luke 16:15: What is highly esteemed among men is an abomination in the sight of God. 

Isaiah 29:13 – “This people draws near to honor me with their lips, but their heart is far from me. In vain do they worship (σέβασμα) me, teaching as doctrines the commandments of men.”

James 3:15 – This wisdom does not descend from above, but is earthly, natural, and demonic.

Isaiah 42:8 – I am the Lord God: that is my name: I will not give my glory to another, nor my praises to graven images.

Job 31:26-28 – If I beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon walking in brightness, and my heart has been secretly enticed, and my hand threw a kiss from my mouth, this also were a very great iniquity, and a denial of the most high God.

2 Kings 23:24 – Moreover the [workers with] familiar spirits, and the wizards, and the teraphim, and the idols, and all the abominations that were spied in the land of Judah and in Jerusalem, did Josiah put away, that he might perform the words of the law which were written in the book that Hilkiah the priest found in the house of the Lord.

Jeremiah 50:38 – A drought is upon her waters; and they shall be dried up: for it is the land of graven images, and they are mad upon their idols.

Ezekiel 6:6 – In all your dwelling places the cities shall be laid waste, and the high places shall be desolate; that your altars may be laid waste and made desolate, and your idols may be broken and cease, and your images may be cut down, and your works may be abolished.

Leviticus 26:30 – “And I will destroy your high places, and cut down your images, and cast your carcasses upon the carcasses of your idols, and my soul shall abhor you.”

Ezekiel 6:9 – And they that escape of you shall remember me among the nations whither they shall be carried captives, because I am broken with their whorish heart, which has departed from me, and with their eyes, which go a whoring after their idols: and they shall loathe themselves for the evils which they have committed in all their abominations.

2 Kings 17:32-35, 41 – They were fearing the Lord, and they established their abominations in the houses of the high places that were made in Samaria by the nations, each nation in the city which they dwelled in. They were fearing the Lord, and they made priests of the high places, and they sacrificed (latria) for themselves in the house of the high places. They feared the Lord, and they served their gods according to the custom of the peoples from which they were exiled. To this day they have been doing according to their custom. They have feared, and they have been doing according to their duties and according to their customs and according to the law and according to the command that the Lord commanded the sons of Jacob, whom He set His name as Israel. The Lord made them a covenant, and He commanded them, saying, “Do not fear other gods and bow down to them. Do not serve (latria) them, and do not sacrifice to them.” … So these nations feared the Lord, and served (doulia) their images (γλυπτος). Their children likewise, and their children’s children, as their fathers did, so they do to this day.

1 Enoch 99:7-14 – Again I swear to you sinners, that sin has been prepared for a day of blood which does not end. And they will worship stones; and others will make images of gold and of silver and of wood and of clay, and others will worship unclean spirits and demons and all kinds of idols, even in the idol temples; but no help will be found in them. And they will become impious in the foolishness of their hearts, and their eyes will be blinded through fear in their hearts and through a vision of their dreams. Through them they will be impious and will fear, because they do all their deeds in untruth, and worship stones; but they will be destroyed in an instant.  But in those days blessed are all they who receive the words of wisdom and know them, and do the paths of the Most High, and walk in the path of justice, and do not act impiously with those who act impiously; for they will be saved.  Woe to you who spread evil among your neighbors, for ye will be killed in hell.  Woe to you who make a foundation for sin and deception, and who cause bitterness on the earth, for thereby they will reach an end. Woe to you who build your houses by the labor of another, and whose building material is nothing but the bricks and stones of sin. I tell you ye will have no peace. Woe to those who cast away the measure and the inheritance of their fathers, which is forever, and cause their souls to follow after idols; no rest will be to them.

CHURCH FATHERS:

The Apostle Peter:

The idols also of the Gentiles are called gods, and we all know that they are not; but this has been inflicted as a punishment on the wicked, that because they would not acknowledge the true God, they should regard as God whatever form or image should occur to them. Because they refused to receive the knowledge of the One who, as I said, is God of all, therefore it is permitted to them to have as gods those who can do nothing for their worshippers. For what can either dead images or living creatures confer upon men, since the power of all things is with One? – Recognitions of Clement, Book 2, Chapter 41.

Now therefore, since you do not yet understand how great darkness of ignorance surrounds you, meantime I wish to explain to you whence the worship of idols began in this world. And by idols, I mean those lifeless images which you worship, whether made of wood, or earthenware, or stone, or brass, or any other metals: of these the beginning was in this wise. – Recognitions of Clement, Book 4, Chapter 26.

For whereas at first, men worshipping a righteous and all-seeing God, neither dared sin nor do injury to their neighbours, being persuaded that God sees the actions and movements of every one; when religious worship was directed to lifeless images, concerning which they were certain that they were incapable of hearing, or sight, or motion, they began to sin licentiously, and to go forward to every crime, because they had no fear of suffering anything at the hands of those whom they worshipped as gods. Hence the madness of wars burst out; hence plunderings, rapines, captivities, and liberty reduced to slavery; each one, as he could, satisfied his lust and his covetousness, although no power can satisfy covetousness. For as fire, the more fuel it gets, is the more extensively kindled and strengthened, so also the madness of covetousness is made greater and more vehement by means of those things which it acquires. – Recognitions of Clement, Book 4, Chapter 31.

Begin, therefore, to cast out of your minds the vain ideas of idols, and your useless and empty fears, that at the same time you may also escape the condition of unrighteous bondage. For those have become your lords, who could not even have been profitable servants to you. For how should lifeless images seem fit even to serve you, when they can neither hear, nor see, nor feel anything? Yea, even the material of which they are made, whether it be gold or silver, or even brass or wood, though it might have profited you for necessary uses, you have rendered wholly inefficient and useless by fashioning gods out of it. We therefore declare to you the true worship of God, and at the same time warn and exhort the worshippers, that by good deeds they imitate Him whom they worship, and hasten to return to His image and likeness, as we said before. – Recognitions of Clement, Book 5, Chapter 14

But I should like if those who worship idols would tell me if they wish to become like those whom they worship? Does any one of you wish to see in such sort as they see? Or to hear after the manner of their hearing? Or to have such understanding as they have? Far be this from any of my hearers! For this were rather to be thought a curse and a reproach to a man, who bears in himself the image of God, although he has lost the likeness. What sort of gods, then, are they to be reckoned, the imitation of whom would be execrable to their worshippers, and to have whose likeness would be a reproach? What then? Melt your useless images, and make useful vessels. Melt the unserviceable and inactive metal, and make implements fit for the use of men. But, says one, human laws do not allow us. He says well; for it is human laws, and not their own power, that prevents it. What kind of gods, then, are those which are defended by human laws, and not by their own energies? And so also they are preserved from thieves by watch-dogs and the protection of bolts, at least if they be of silver, or gold, or even of brass; for those that are of stone and earthenware are protected by their own worthlessness, for no one will steal a stone or a crockery god. Hence those seem to be the more miserable whose more precious metal exposes them to the greater danger. Since, then, they can be stolen, since they must be guarded by men, since they can be melted, and weighed out, and forged with hammers, ought men possessed of understanding to hold them as gods? – Recognitions of Clement, Book 5, Chapter 15

Through the mouths of others also that serpent is wont to speak in this wise: “We adore visible images in honour of the invisible God.” Now this is most certainly false. For if you really wished to worship the image of God, you would do good to man, and so worship the true image of God in him. For the image of God is in every man, though His likeness is not in all, but where the soul is benign and the mind pure. If, therefore, you wish truly to honour the image of God, we declare to you what is true, that you should do good to and pay honour and reverence to man, who is made in the image of God; that you minister food to the hungry, drink to the thirsty, clothing to the naked, hospitality to the stranger, and necessary things to the prisoner; and that is what will be regarded as truly bestowed upon God. And so far do these things go to the honour of God’s image, that he who does not these things is regarded as casting reproach upon the divine image. What, then, is that honour of God which consists in running from one stone or wooden figure to another, in venerating empty and lifeless figures as deities, and despising men in whom the image of God is of a truth? Yea, rather be assured, that whoever commits murder or adultery, or anything that causes suffering or injury to men, in all these the image of God is violated. For to injure men is a great impiety towards God. Whenever, therefore, you do to another what you would not have another do to you, you defile the image of God with undeserved distresses. Understand, therefore, that that is the suggestion of the serpent lurking within you, which persuades you that you may seem to be pious when you worship insensible things, and may not seem impious when you injure sensible and rational beings. – Recognitions of Clement, Book 5, Chapter 23

[Simon Magus says] “I shall be worshipped as God; I shall have divine honours publicly assigned to me, so that an image of me shall be set up, and I shall be worshipped and adored as God.” – Recognitions of Clement, book 2, chapter 9

[Simon Magus says] “Once on a time, I, by my power, turning air into water, and water again into blood, and solidifying it into flesh, formed a new human creature — a boy — and produced a much nobler work than God the Creator. For He created a man from the earth, but I from air — a far more difficult matter; and again I unmade him and restored him to air, but not until I had placed his picture and image in my bed-chamber, as a proof and memorial of my work.” Then we understood that he spoke concerning that boy, whose soul, after he had been slain by violence, he made use of for those services which he required. – Recognitions of Clement, Book 2, Chapter 15

[Simon Magus says] “If God said we can’t see His face and live, how can we see Him when the visible Heaven is dissolved?” Then Peter answered: “To those who do not read the law according to the tradition of Moses, my speech appears to be contrary to it; but I will show you how it is not contradictory. God is seen by the mind, not by the body; by the spirit, not by the flesh. Whence also angels, who are spirits, see God; and therefore men, as long as they are men, cannot see Him. But after the resurrection of the dead, when they shall have been made like the angels, they shall be able to see God. And thus my statement is not contrary to the law; neither is that which our Master said, ‘Blessed are they of a pure heart, for they shall see God.’ For He showed that a time shall come in which of men shall be made angels, who in the spirit of their mind shall see God.” After these and many similar sayings, Simon began to assert with many oaths, saying: “Concerning one thing only render me a reason, whether the soul is immortal, and I shall submit to your will in all things. But let it be tomorrow, for today it is late.” When therefore Peter began to speak, Simon went out, and with him a very few of his associates; and that for shame. But all the rest, turning to Peter, on bended knees prostrated themselves before him; and some of those who were afflicted with diverse sicknesses, or invaded by demons, were healed by the prayer of Peter, and departed rejoicing, as having obtained at once the doctrine of the true God, and also His mercy. When therefore the crowds had withdrawn, and only we his attendants remained with him, we sat down on couches placed on the ground, each one recognising his accustomed place, and having taken food, and given thanks to God, we went to sleep. – Recognitions of Clement, book 3, chapter 30

But you are wicked against the God of all, worshipping lifeless images instead of Him or along with Him, and attributing His divine name to every kind of senseless matter. – Clementine Homilies, Homily 9, chapter 2

• Contrast with this Orthodox website: As St. John Damascene asserts: “I do not worship matter but I worship the Creator of matter, Who for my sake became material and deigned to dwell in matter, Who through matter effected my salvation. I will not cease from worshipping the matter through which my salvation has been effected [On Icons, 1,16].” Following his teachings, we, as Orthodox Christians, do not venerate an Icon of Christ because of the nature of the wood or the paint, but rather we venerate the inanimate image of Christ with the intention of worshipping Christ Himself as God Incarnate through it.

Those also who reigned in different places, acting in this fashion, and making an image, and kindling altars in honour of fire, most of them were excluded from the kingdom. – Clementine Homilies, Homily 9, chapter 6

But they did not cease to worship images, by reason of the evil intelligence of the magicians, who found excuses for them, which had power to constrain them to the foolish worship. – Clementine Homilies, Homily 9, chapter 7

But if you think that images, as being alive, can accomplish such things, place them on a beam accurately balanced, and place an equipoise in the other scale, then ask them to become either heavier or lighter: and if this be done, then they are alive. But it does not so happen. But if it were so, this would not prove them to be gods. For this might be accomplished by the finger of the demon. Even maggots move, yet they are not called gods. – Clementine Homilies, Homily 9, chapter 15

Begin, then, to divest yourselves of the injurious fear of vain idols, that you may escape unrighteous bondage. For they have become your masters, who even as servants are unprofitable to you. I speak of the material of the lifeless images, which are of no use to you as far as service is concerned. For they neither hear nor see nor feel, nor can they be moved. For is there any one of you who would like to see as they see, and to hear as they hear, and to feel as they feel, and to be moved as they are? God forbid that such a wrong should be done to any man bearing the image of God, though he have lost His likeness. – Clementine Homilies, Homily 10, chapter 7

For many say, “We do not worship the gold or the silver, the wood or the stone, of the objects of our worship. For we also know that these are nothing but lifeless matter, and the art of mortal man. But the spirit that dwells in them, that we call God.” Behold the immorality of those who speak thus! For when that which appears is easily proved to be nothing, they have recourse to the invisible, as not being able to be convicted in respect of what is non-apparent. However, they agree with us in part, that one half of their images is not God, but senseless matter. It remains for them to show how we are to believe that these images have a divine spirit. But they cannot prove to us that it is so, for it is not so; and we do not believe them when they say that they have seen it. We shall afford them proofs that they have not a divine spirit, that lovers of truth, hearing the refutation of the thought that they are animated, may turn away from the hurtful delusion. – Clementine Homilies, Homily 10, chapter 21

You are the image of the invisible God. Whence let not those who would be pious say that idols are images of God, and therefore that it is right to worship them. For the image of God is man. He who wishes to be pious towards God does good to man, because the body of man bears the image of God. But all do not as yet bear His likeness, but the pure mind of the good soul does. However, as we know that man was made after the image and after the likeness of God, we tell you to be pious towards him, that the favour may be accounted as done to God, whose image he is. Therefore it behooves you to give honour to the image of God, which is man—in this wise: food to the hungry, drink to the thirsty, clothing to the naked, care to the sick, shelter to the stranger, and visiting him who is in prison, to help him as you can. And not to speak at length, whatever good things any one wishes for himself, so let him afford to another in need, and then a good reward can be reckoned to him as being pious towards the image of God. And by like reason, if he will not undertake to do these things, he shall be punished as neglecting the image. – Clementine Homilies, Homily 11, chapter 4

Can it therefore be said that, for the sake of piety towards God, ye worship every form, while in all things ye injure man who is really the image of God, committing murder, adultery, stealing, and dishonouring him in many other respects? … But you, being seduced by some malignant reptile to malice, by the suggestion of polytheistic doctrine, are impious towards the real image, which is man, and think that you are pious towards senseless things. – Clementine Homilies, Homily 11, chapter 5

For it is not the thing that is worshipped that sins; for it suffers violence at the hands of him who will worship it. For though unjust judgment is passed by all men, yet not by God. For it is not just that the sufferer and the disposer receive the same punishment, unless he willingly receive the honour which belongs only to the Most Honourable. – Clementine Homilies, Homily 11, chapter 6

But it will be said that the worshippers themselves ought to be taken away by the true God, that others may not do it. But you are not wiser than God, that you should give Him counsel as one more prudent than He. He knows what He does; for He is long-suffering to all who are in impiety, as a merciful and philanthropic father, knowing that impious men become pious. And of those very worshippers of base and senseless things, many becoming sober have ceased to worship these things and to sin, and many Greeks have been saved so as to pray to the true God. – Clementine Homilies, Homily 11, chapter 7

But, you say, we do better when we are thankful at once to Him and to all others. Now, when you say this, you do not know the plot that is formed against you. For as, when many physicians of no power promise to cure one patient, one who is really able to cure him does not apply his remedy, considering that, if he should cure him, the others would get the credit; so also God does not do you good, when He is asked along with many who can do nothing. What! It will be said, is God enraged at this, if, when He cures, another gets the credit? I answer: Although He be not indignant, at all events He will not be an accomplice in deceit; for when He has conferred a benefit, the idol, which has done nothing, is credited with the power. But also I say to you, if he who is excited by (ἐπτοημένος) senseless things (ἀναίσθητα) had not been injured naturally, perhaps He (God) would have endured even this. Wherefore watch ye that you may attain to a reasonable understanding on the matter of salvation. For God being without want, neither Himself needs anything, nor receives hurt; for it belongs to us to be profited or injured. For in like manner as Cæsar is neither hurt when he is evil spoken of, nor profited when he is thanked, but safety accrues to the renderer of thanks, and ruin to the evil-speaker, so they who speak well of God indeed profit Him nothing, but save themselves; and in like manner, those who blaspheme Him do not indeed injure Him, but themselves perish. – Clementine Homilies, Homily 11, chapter 9

But others say, We are more pious than you, since we worship both him and images. I do not think, if one were to say to a king, “I give you an equal share of honour with that which I give to corpses and to worthless dung,”—I do not think that he would profit by it. But some one will say, Do you call our objects of worship dung? I say Yes, for you have made them useless to yourselves by setting them aside for worship, whereas their substance might perhaps have been serviceable for some other purpose, or for the purpose of manure. But now it is not useful even for this purpose, since you have changed its shape and worship it. And how do you say that you are more pious, you who are the most wicked of all, who deserve destruction of your souls by this very one incomparable sin, at the hands of Him who is true, if you abide in it? For as if any son having received many benefits from his father, give to another, who is not his father, the honour that is due to his father, he is certainly disinherited; but if he live according to the judgment of his father, and so thanks him for his kindnesses, he is with good reason made the heir. – Clementine Homilies, Homily 11, chapter 12

But others say, “We shall act impiously if we forsake the objects of worship handed down to us by our fathers; for it is like the guarding of a deposit.” But on this principle the son of a robber or a debauchee ought not to be sober and to choose the better part, lest he should act impiously, and sin by doing differently from his parents! How foolish, then, are they who say, We worship these things that we may not be troublesome to Him; as if God were troubled by those who bless Him, and not troubled by those who ungratefully blaspheme Him. – Clementine Homilies, Homily 11, chapter 13

Oh men without understanding! … You offer your prescribed prayers and thanksgivings even to those who are deader than the dead. – Clementine Homilies, Homily 11, chapter 13

Since, therefore, the souls of the dead giants were greater than human souls, inasmuch as they also surpassed them in their bodies, as a new race they were addressed by a new name as well. To them, as new arrivals to the world, a law was ordained by God through an angel, how they ought to live. For being bastards by race, from the fire of angels and the blood of women, and for this reason being about to desire a certain race of their own, they were anticipated by a certain just law. For there was sent to them by God a certain angel, making known His will and saying: These things seem good to the all-seeing God: that you should have dominion over no man, nor trouble anyone, unless someone willingly enslaves (καταδουλώσῃ) himself to you by worshipping (προσκυνῶν) you and sacrificing and pouring libations and partaking of your table, or performing some other thing of those which one ought not, or shedding blood, or tasting dead flesh, or the remains of a beast, or of that which is torn, or of that which is strangled, or filling himself with any other unclean thing. But of those who take refuge in my law, not only shall you not touch them, but you shall also give them honor and flee from their presence. For whatever seems good to them, being righteous, against you, this you must suffer. But if any of those attached to me should sin, either by committing adultery or practicing magic or living impurely or doing some other thing of those which do not seem good to me, then by my command it will be necessary for them to suffer something from you or from others; for whom also, having repented, I, having judged their repentance whether it is worthy of pardon or not, will make the decision. – Clementine Homilies, Homily 8, chapter 18

• The Recognitions of Clement is endorsed as an authentic writing of Clement by many church fathers.

Clement of Rome (died 100 AD):

Brethren, it is fitting that you should think of Jesus Christ as of God — as the Judge of the living and the dead. And it does not become us to think lightly of our salvation; for if we think little of Him, we shall also hope but to obtain little [from Him]. And those of us who hear carelessly of these things, as if they were of small importance, commit sin, not knowing whence we have been called, and by whom, and to what place, and how much Jesus Christ submitted to suffer for our sakes. What return, then, shall we make to Him, or what fruit that shall be worthy of that which He has given to us? For, indeed, how great are the benefits which we owe to Him! He has graciously given us light; as a Father, He has called us sons; He has saved us when we were ready to perish. What praise, then, shall we give to Him, or what return shall we make for the things which we have received? We were deficient in understanding, worshipping stones and wood, and gold, and silver, and brass, the works of men’s hands; and our whole life was nothing else than death. Involved in blindness, and with such darkness before our eyes, we have received sight, and through His will have laid aside that cloud by which we were enveloped. For He had compassion on us, and mercifully saved us, observing the many errors in which we were entangled, as well as the destruction to which we were exposed, and that we had no hope of salvation except it came to us from Him. For He called us when we were not, and willed that out of nothing we should attain a real existence. – Clement of Rome, 2 Clement, Chapter 1

This is the way, dear friends, in which we found our salvation, Jesus Christ, the high priest of our offerings, the protector and helper of our weakness. Through Him we fix our gaze on the heights of heaven. In Him we see mirrored God’s pure and transcendent face. Through Him the eyes of our hearts have been opened. Through Him our foolish and darkened understanding springs up to the light. Through Him the Master has willed that we should taste immortal knowledge. For, since “He reflects the glory of God,” “He is as much superior to the angels as the name He has obtained is more excellent than theirs.” For thus it is written: “He makes his angels winds, and his servants flames of fire.” But of His Son this is what the Master said: “You are my son, today I have begotten You. Ask of Me, and I will make the nations Your heritage, and the ends of the earth Your possession.” And again He says to Him, “Sit at My right hand till I make Your enemies Your footstool.” Who are meant by “enemies”? Those who are wicked and resist His will. – Clement of Rome, 1 Clement, chapter 36

Ignatius of Antioch (30-108 AD):

Only request in my behalf both inward and outward strength, that I may not only speak, but [truly] will; and that I may not merely be called a Christian, but really be found to be one. For if I be truly found [a Christian], I may also be called one, and be then deemed faithful, when I shall no longer appear to the world. Nothing visible is eternal. For the things which are seen are temporal, but the things which are not seen are eternal. For our God, Jesus Christ, is more visible now that He is with the Father. – Ignatius, Letter to the Romans, chapter 3

I write to all the churches, and I bid all men know, that of my own free will I die for God, unless you should hinder me. I exhort you, be not an unseasonable kindness to me. Let me be given to the wild beasts, for through them I can attain unto God. I am God’s wheat, and I am ground by the teeth of wild beasts that I may be found pure bread [of Christ]. Rather entice the wild beasts, that they may become my tomb and may leave no part of my body behind, so that I may not, when I am fallen asleep, be burdensome to any one. Then shall I be truly a disciple of Jesus Christ, when the world shall not see my body. Supplicate the Lord for me, that through these instruments I may be found a sacrifice to God. – Ignatius, Letter to the Romans, chapter 4

Mathetes (130 AD):

Most excellent Diognetus: I can see that you deeply desire to learn how Christians worship their God (θεοσέβειαν). You have so carefully and earnestly asked your questions about them: What is it about the God they believe in, and the form of religion (θρησκεύοντες) they observe, that lets them look down upon the world and despise death? Why do they reject the Greek gods and the Jewish superstitions alike? What about the affection they all have for each other? And why has this new group and their practices come to life only now, and not long ago? – Mathetes to Diognetus, chapter 1

Come, then, after you have freed yourself from all prejudices possessing your mind, and laid aside what you have been accustomed to, as something apt to deceive you, and being made, as if from the beginning, a new man, inasmuch as, according to your own confession, you are to be the hearer of a new [system of] doctrine; come and contemplate, not with your eyes only, but with your understanding, the substance and the form of those whom you declare and deem to be gods.

Is not one of them a stone similar to that on which we tread? Is not a second brass, in no way superior to those vessels which are constructed for our ordinary use? Is not a third wood, and that already rotten? Is not a fourth silver, which needs a man to watch it, lest it be stolen? Is not a fifth iron, consumed by rust? Is not a sixth earthenware, in no degree more valuable than that which is formed for the humblest purposes?

Are not all these of corruptible matter? Are they not fabricated by means of iron and fire? Did not the sculptor fashion one of them, the brazier a second, the silversmith a third, and the potter a fourth? Was not every one of them, before they were formed by the arts of these [workmen] into the shape of these, each in its own way subject to change? Would not those things which are now vessels, formed of the same materials, become like to such, if they met with the same artificers? Might not these, which are now worshipped (προσκυνούμενα ) by you, again be made by men vessels similar to others? Are they not all deaf? Are they not blind? Are they not without life? Are they not destitute of feeling? Are they not incapable of motion? Are they not all prone to decay? Are they not all corruptible?

These things you call gods; these you serve (δουλεύετε); these you worship (προσκυνεῖτε); and you become altogether like them. For this reason you hate the Christians, because they do not deem these to be gods. But do not you yourselves, who now think and suppose [such to be gods], much more cast contempt upon them than they [the Christians do]? Do you not much more mock and insult them, when you worship those that are made of stone and earthenware, without appointing any persons to guard them; but those made of silver and gold you shut up by night, and appoint watchers to look after them by day, lest they be stolen? And by those gifts which you mean to present to them, do you not, if they are possessed of sense, rather punish [than honour] them? But if, on the other hand, they are destitute of sense, you convict them of this fact, while you worship (thrēskeuete) them with blood and the smoke of sacrifices. Let any one of you suffer such indignities! Let any one of you endure to have such things done to himself! But not a single human being will, unless compelled to it, endure such treatment, since he is endowed with sense and reason. A stone, however, readily bears it, seeing it is insensible. Certainly you do not show [by your conduct] that he [your God] is possessed of sense. – The Epistle of Mathetes to Diognetus, Chapter 2

• Now, if the ONLY criticism that Christians had of pagans was that they bowed and offered incense to images that depicted the WRONG GOD, they would not go into such great detail about the very SUBSTANCE of the images being a problem, they would not say, over and over again, that the very METHOD of worship was wrong, but rather, they would emphasize that prostrations and incense should be offered to a DIFFERENT picture.

And next, I imagine that you are most desirous of hearing something on this point, that the Christians do not observe the same forms of divine worship as do the Jews. The Jews, then, if they abstain from the kind of service above described, and deem it proper to worship one God as being Lord of all, [are right]; but if they offer Him worship in the way which we have described, they greatly err. For while the Gentiles, by offering such things to those that are destitute of sense and hearing, furnish an example of madness; they, on the other hand by thinking to offer these things to God as if He needed them, might justly reckon it rather an act of folly than of divine worship. For He that made heaven and earth, and all that is therein, and gives to us all the things of which we stand in need, certainly requires none of those things which He Himself bestows on such as think of furnishing them to Him. But those who imagine that, by means of blood, and incense and burnt-offerings, they offer sacrifices [acceptable] to Him, and that by such honours they show Him respect, — these, by supposing that they can give anything to Him who needs nothing, appear to me in no respect to differ from those who studiously confer the same honour on things destitute of sense, and which therefore are unable to enjoy such honours. – Mathetes to Diognetus, chapter 3

But as to their scrupulosity concerning food, and their superstition as respects the Sabbaths, and their boasting about circumcision, and their fancies about fasting and the new moons, which are utterly ridiculous and unworthy of notice — I do not think that you require to learn anything from me. For, to accept some of those things which have been formed by God for the use of men as properly formed, and to reject others as useless and redundant — how can this be lawful? And to speak falsely of God, as if He forbade us to do what is good on the Sabbath-days — how is not this impious? And to glory in the circumcision of the flesh as a proof of election, and as if, on account of it, they were specially beloved by God — how is it not a subject of ridicule? And as to their observing months and days (Galatians 4:10), as if waiting upon the stars and the moon, and their distributing, according to their own tendencies, the appointments of God, and the vicissitudes of the seasons, some for festivities, and others for mourning — who would deem this a part of divine worship, and not much rather a manifestation of folly? I suppose, then, you are sufficiently convinced that the Christians properly abstain from the vanity and error common [to both Jews and Gentiles], and from the busybody spirit and vain boasting of the Jews; but you must not hope to learn the mystery of their peculiar mode of divine worship (θεοσεβείας) from any mortal. – The Epistle of Mathetes to Diognetus, Chapter 4

[And yet the Cathodox say, “Of COURSE God wants to be worshiped through lifeless images! Don’t lots of people around the world give honor to their family members by kissing lifeless images? Therefore, God wants to be worshiped in the same way. God’s doctrines are so obvious from observing human custom all around the world!”]

To sum up all in one word — what the soul is in the body, Christians are in the world. The soul is dispersed through all the members of the body, and Christians are scattered through all the cities of the world. The soul dwells in the body, yet is not of the body; and Christians dwell in the world, yet are not of the world. The invisible soul is guarded by the visible body, and Christians are known indeed to be in the world, but their worship of God (θεοσέβεια) remains invisible. The flesh hates the soul, and wars against it, though itself suffering no injury, because it is prevented from enjoying pleasures; the world also hates the Christians, though in nowise injured, because they abjure pleasures. The soul loves the flesh that hates it, and [loves also] the members; Christians likewise love those that hate them. The soul is imprisoned in the body, yet keeps together that very body; and Christians are confined in the world as in a prison, and yet they keep together the world. The immortal soul dwells in a mortal tabernacle; and Christians dwell as sojourners in corruptible [bodies], looking for an incorruptible dwelling in the heavens. The soul, when but ill-provided with food and drink, becomes better; in like manner, the Christians, though subjected day by day to punishment, increase the more in number. God has assigned them this illustrious position, which it were unlawful for them to forsake. – The Epistle of Mathetes to Diognetus, Chapter 6

No man has either seen Him, or made Him known, but He has revealed Himself. And He has manifested Himself through faith, to which alone it is given to behold God. – The Epistle of Mathetes to Diognetus, Chapter 8

I do not speak of things strange to me, nor do I aim at anything inconsistent with right reason; but having been a disciple of the Apostles, I have become a teacher of the Gentiles. I minister the things delivered to me to those that are disciples worthy of the truth. For who that is rightly taught and begotten by the loving Word, would not seek to learn accurately the things which have been clearly shown by the Word to His disciples, to whom the Word being manifested has revealed them, speaking plainly [to them], not understood indeed by the unbelieving, but conversing with the disciples, who, being esteemed faithful by Him, acquired a knowledge of the mysteries of the Father? For which reason He sent the Word, that He might be manifested to the world; and He, being despised by the people [of the Jews], was, when preached by the Apostles, believed on by the Gentiles. This is He who was from the beginning, who appeared as if new, and was found old, and yet who is ever born afresh in the hearts of the saints. This is He who, being from everlasting, is today called the Son; through whom the Church is enriched, and grace, widely spread, increases in the saints, furnishing understanding, revealing mysteries, announcing times, rejoicing over the faithful, giving to those that seek, by whom the limits of faith are not broken through, nor the boundaries set by the fathers passed over. Then the fear of the law is chanted, and the grace of the prophets is known, and the faith of the gospels is established, and the tradition of the Apostles is preserved, and the grace of the Church exults; which grace if you grieve not, you shall know those things which the Word teaches, by whom He wills, and when He pleases. For whatever things we are moved to utter by the will of the Word commanding us, we communicate to you with pains, and from a love of the things that have been revealed to us. – The Epistle of Mathetes to Diognetus, Chapter 11

Aristides of Athens (117–138 AD):

The Barbarians, then, as they did not apprehend God, went astray among the elements, and began to worship things created instead of their Creator; and for this end they made images and shut them up in shrines, and lo! They worship them, guarding them the while with much care, lest their gods be stolen by robbers. And the Barbarians did not observe that that which acts as guard is greater than that which is guarded, and that everyone who creates is greater than that which is created. If it be, then, that their gods are too feeble to see to their own safety, how will they take thought for the safety of men? Great then is the error into which the Barbarians wandered in worshipping lifeless images which can do nothing to help them. And I am led to wonder, O King, at their philosophers, how that even they went astray, and gave the name of gods to images which were made in honour of the elements; and that their sages did not perceive that the elements also are dissoluble and perishable. For if a small part of an element is dissolved or destroyed, the whole of it may be dissolved and destroyed. If then the elements themselves are dissolved and destroyed and forced to be subject to another that is more stubborn than they, and if they are not in their nature gods, why, forsooth, do they call the images which are made in their honour, God? Great, then, is the error which the philosophers among them have brought upon their followers. – Aristides, Apology, Chapter 3

They fell aside from the truth, and went after the desire of their imagination, serving the perishable elements and lifeless images. – Aristides, Apology, Chapter 7

But it is a marvel, O King, with regard to the Greeks, who surpass all other peoples in their manner of life and reasoning, how they have gone astray after dead idols and lifeless images. And yet they see their gods in the hands of their artificers being sawn out, and planed and docked, and hacked short, and charred, and ornamented, and being altered by them in every kind of way. And when they grow old, and are worn away through lapse of time, and when they are molten and crushed to powder, how, I wonder, did they not perceive concerning them, that they are not gods? And as for those who did not find deliverance for themselves, how can they serve the distress of men? – Aristides of Athens, Apology, Chapter 13

But the Christians, O King, while they went about and made search, have found the truth; and as we learned from their writings, they have come nearer to truth and genuine knowledge than the rest of the nations…. They do not worship idols (made) in the image of man. – Aristides of Athens, Apology, Chapter 15

Therefore the Chaldeans have been greatly mistaken, following after their own desires. For they worship (σέβονται) corruptible elements and dead statues, and do not perceive that they are deifying these things. – Aristides of Athens, Fragment 7.4

Justin Martyr (160 AD):

And while we affirm that the souls of the wicked, being endowed with sensation even after death, are punished, and that those of the good being delivered from punishment spend a blessed existence, we shall seem to say the same things as the poets and philosophers; and while we maintain that men ought not to worship (προσκυνεῖν) the works of their hands, we say the very things which have been said by the comic poet Menander, and other similar writers, for they have declared that the workman is greater than the work. – Justin Martyr, First Apology, chapter 20

And the prophecy in which it was predicted that there should be more believers from the Gentiles than from the Jews and Samaritans, we will produce: it ran thus: Rejoice, O barren, you that do not bear; break forth and shout, you that do not travail, because many more are the children of the desolate than of her that has an husband. Isaiah 54:1 For all the Gentiles were desolate of the true God, serving the works of their hands; – Justin Martyr, First Apology, chapter 53

For they who are called devils attempt nothing else than to seduce men from God who made them, and from Christ His first-begotten; and those who are unable to raise themselves above the earth they have riveted, and do now rivet, to things earthly, and to the works of their own hands; but those who devote themselves to the contemplation of things divine, they secretly beat back; and if they have not a wise sober-mindedness, and a pure and passionless life, they drive them into godlessness. – Justin Martyr, First Apology, chapter 58

He [Simon Magus] was considered a god, and as a god was honoured by you with a statue, which statue was erected on the river Tiber, between the two bridges, and bore this inscription, in the language of Rome: — Simoni Deo Sancto, To Simon the holy God. And almost all the Samaritans, and a few even of other nations, worship him, and acknowledge him as the first god; and a woman, Helena, who went about with him at that time, and had formerly been a prostitute, they say is the first idea generated by him. – Justin Martyr, First Apology, chapter 26

But the evil spirits were not satisfied with saying, before Christ’s appearance, that those who were said to be sons of Jupiter were born of him; but after He had appeared, and been born among men, and when they learned how He had been foretold by the prophets, and knew that He should be believed on and looked for by every nation, they again, as was said above, put forward other men, the Samaritans Simon and Menander, who did many mighty works by magic, and deceived many, and still keep them deceived. For even among yourselves, as we said before, Simon was in the royal city Rome in the reign of Claudius Cæsar, and so greatly astonished the sacred senate and people of the Romans, that he was considered a god, and honoured, like the others whom you honour as gods, with a statue. Wherefore we pray that the sacred senate and your people may, along with yourselves, be arbiters of this our memorial, in order that if any one be entangled by that man’s doctrines, he may learn the truth, and so be able to escape error; and as for the statue, if you please, destroy it. – Justin Martyr, First Apology, chapter 56

And neither do we honour with many sacrifices and garlands of flowers such deities as men have formed and set in shrines and called gods; since we see that these are soulless and dead, and have not the form of God (for we do not consider that God has such a form as some say that they imitate to His honour), but have the names and forms of those wicked demons which have appeared. For why need we tell you who already know, into what forms the craftsmen, carving and cutting, casting and hammering, fashion the materials? And often out of vessels of dishonour, by merely changing the form, and making an image of the requisite shape, they make what they call a god; which we consider not only senseless, but to be even insulting to God, who, having ineffable glory and form, thus gets His name attached to things that are corruptible, and require constant service. And that the artificers of these are both intemperate, and, not to enter into particulars, are practised in every vice, you very well know; even their own girls who work along with them they corrupt. What infatuation! that dissolute men should be said to fashion and make gods for your worship, and that you should appoint such men the guardians of the temples where they are enshrined; not recognising that it is unlawful even to think or say that men are the guardians of gods. – Justin Martyr (160 AD), First Apology, Chapter 9

And this is the sole accusation you bring against us, that we do not reverence the same gods as you do, nor offer to the dead libations and the savour of fat, and crowns for their statues, and sacrifices. – Justin Martyr (160 AD) First Apology, Chapter 24

But since I have not quoted to you such Scripture as tells that Christ will do these things, I must necessarily remind you of one such: from which you can understand, how that to those destitute of a knowledge of God, I mean the Gentiles, who, ‘having eyes, saw not, and having a heart, understood not,’ worshipping the images of wood, [how even to them] Scripture prophesied that they would renounce these [vanities], and hope in this Christ. – Justin Martyr (160 AD) Dialogue with Trypho, Chapter 69

For tell me, was it not God who commanded by Moses that no image or likeness of anything which was in heaven above or which was on the earth should be made, and yet who caused the brazen serpent to be made by Moses in the wilderness, and set it up for a sign by which those bitten by serpents were saved? Yet is He free from unrighteousness. For by this, as I previously remarked, He proclaimed the mystery, by which He declared that He would break the power of the serpent which occasioned the transgression of Adam, and [would bring] to them that believe on Him [who was foreshadowed] by this sign, i.e., Him who was to be crucified, salvation from the fangs of the serpent, which are wicked deeds, idolatries, and other unrighteous acts. Unless the matter be so understood, give me a reason why Moses set up the brazen serpent for a sign, and bade those that were bitten gaze at it, and the wounded were healed; and this, too, when he had himself commanded that no likeness of anything whatsoever should be made.” On this, another of those who came on the second day said, “You have spoken truly: we cannot give a reason. For I have frequently interrogated the teachers about this matter, and none of them gave me a reason: therefore continue what you are speaking; for we are paying attention while you unfold the mystery, on account of which the doctrines of the prophets are falsely slandered.” Then I replied, “Just as God commanded the sign to be made by the brazen serpent, and yet He is blameless; even so, though a curse lies in the law against persons who are crucified, yet no curse lies on the Christ of God, by whom all that have committed things worthy of a curse are saved. – Justin Martyr (160 AD) Dialogue with Trypho, Chapter 94

We must also mention what the ancient and exceedingly remote Sibyl, whom Plato and Aristophanes, and others besides, mention as a prophetess, taught you in her oracular verses concerning one only God. And she speaks thus:—

“There is one only unbegotten God, Omnipotent, invisible, most high, All-seeing, but Himself seen by no flesh.”

Then elsewhere thus:—

“But we have strayed from the Immortal’s ways,
And worship with a dull and senseless mind Idols,
the workmanship of our own hands,
And images and figures of dead men.”

And again somewhere else:—

“Blessed shall be those men upon the earth
Who shall love the great God before all else, Blessing Him when they eat and when they drink; Trusting it, this their piety alone.
Who shall abjure all shrines which they may see, All altars and vain figures of dumb stones, Worthless and stained with blood of animals, And sacrifice of the four-fooled tribes, Beholding the great glory of One God.” These are the Sibyl’s words. – Justin Martyr (160 AD) Address to the Greeks, Chapter 16

And if it is needful that we add testimonies concerning one God, even from the dramatists, hear even Sophocles speaking thus:—

“There is one God, in truth there is but one,
Who made the heavens and the broad earth beneath, The glancing waves of ocean and the winds
But many of us mortals err in heart,
And set up for a solace in our woes
Images of the gods in stone and wood,
Or figures carved in brass or ivory,
And, furnishing for these our handiworks,
Both sacrifice and rite magnificent,
We think that thus we do a pious work.”

Thus, then, Sophocles. – Justin Martyr (160 AD) Address to the Greeks, Chapter 18

And if any person investigates the subject of images, and inquires on what ground those who first fashioned your gods conceived that they had the forms of men, he will find that this also was derived from the divine history. For seeing that Moses history, speaking in the person of God, says, “Let Us make man in our image and likeness,” these persons, under the impression that this meant that men were like God in form, began thus to fashion their gods, supposing they would make a likeness from a likeness. But why, ye men of Greece, am I now induced to recount these things? That ye may know that it is not possible to learn the true religion from those who were unable, even on those subjects by which they won the admiration of the heathen, to write anything original, but merely propounded by some allegorical device in their own writings what they had learned from Moses and the other prophets. – Justin Martyr (160 AD) Address to the Greeks, Chapter 34

But he was not the only man initiated in the knowledge of God; for Sophocles also thus describes the nature of the only Creator of all things, the One God:—

“There is one God, in truth there is but one,
Who made the heavens and the broad earth beneath, The glancing waves of ocean, and the winds;
But many of us mortals err in heart,
And set up, for a solace in our woes,
Images of the gods in stone and brass,
Or figures carved in gold or ivory;
And, furnishing for these, our handiworks,
Both sacrifice and rite magnificent,
We think that thus we do a pious work.” – Justin Martyr (160 AD) On the Sole Government of God, Chapter 2

And that God is not appeased by the libations and incense of evil-doers, but awards vengeance in righteousness to each one, Philemon again shall bear testimony to me:—

“If any one should dream, O Pamphilus, By sacrifice of bulls or goats—nay, then, By Jupiter—of any such like things;
Or by presenting gold or purple robes, Or images of ivory and gems;

If thus he thinks he may propitiate God, He errs, and shows himself a silly one. – Justin Martyr (160 AD) On the Sole Government of God, Chapter 4

Tatian the Syrian (160 AD):

For what reason, men of Greece, do you wish to bring the civil powers, as in a pugilistic encounter, into collision with us? And, if I am not disposed to comply with the usages of some of them, why am I to be abhorred as a vile miscreant? Does the sovereign order the payment of tribute, I am ready to render it. Does my master command me to act as a bondsman and to serve, I acknowledge the serfdom. Man is to be honoured as a fellow-man; God alone is to be feared,—He who is not visible to human eyes, nor comes within the compass of human art. Only when I am commanded to deny Him, will I not obey, but will rather die than show myself false and ungrateful. Our God did not begin to be in time: He alone is without beginning, and He Himself is the beginning of all things. God is a Spirit, not pervading matter, but the Maker of material spirits, and of the forms that are in matter; He is invisible, impalpable, being Himself the Father of both sensible and invisible things. Him we know from His creation, and apprehend His invisible power by His works. I refuse to adore that workmanship which He has made for our sakes. The sun and moon were made for us: how, then, can I adore my own servants? How can I speak of stocks and stones as gods? For the Spirit that pervades matter is inferior to the more divine spirit; and this, even when assimilated to the soul, is not to be honoured equally with the perfect God. Nor even ought the ineffable God to be presented with gifts; for He who is in want of nothing is not to be misrepresented by us as though He were indigent. But I will set forth our views more distinctly. – Tatian, Address to the Greeks, Chapter 4

But I cannot be persuaded to pay religious homage to the natural elements, nor can I undertake to persuade my neighbour. – Tatian, Address to the Greeks, chapter 21

Melito of Sardis (160 AD):

There are, however, persons who say: It is for the honor of God that we make the image: in order, that is, that we may worship the God who is concealed from our view. But they are unaware that God is in every country, and in every place, and is never absent, and that there is not anything done and He knows it not. Yet you, despicable man! Within whom He is, and without whom He is, and above whom He is, have nevertheless gone and bought wood from the carpenter’s, and it is carved and made into an image insulting to God. To this you offer sacrifice, and do not know that the all-seeing eye sees you, and that the word of truth reproves you, and says to you: How can the unseen God be sculptured? Nay, it is the likeness of yourself that you make and worship. Because the wood has been sculptured, have you not the insight to perceive that it is still wood, or that the stone is still stone? … Though though you have eyes, do you not see? And though you have intelligence, do you not understand? Why do you  wallow on the ground, and offer supplication to things which are without sense? – Melito of Sardis, Fragments of Melito of Sardis, A Discourse Which Was in the Presence of Antoninus Caesar

• Melito is referring to Recognitions of Clement, “We adore visible images in honour of the invisible God.”

Such is the wickedness of the world – of those who worship and fear that which has no sensation. Many of them, too, who are crafty, either for the sake of gain, or for vainglory, or for dominion over the multitude, both themselves worship, and incite those who are destitute of understanding to worship, that which has no sensation. – Melito of Sardis, Fragments of Melito of Sardis, A Discourse Which Was in the Presence of Antoninus Caesar

Believe in Him who is in reality God, and to Him lay open your mind, and to Him commit your soul, and He is able to give you immortal life for ever, for everything is possible to Him; and let all other things be esteemed by you just as they are – images as images, and sculptures as sculptures; and let not that which is only made be put by you in the place of Him who is not made, but let Him, the ever-living God, be constantly present to your mind. For your mind itself is His likeness: for it too is invisible and impalpable, and not to be represented by any form, yet by its will is the whole bodily frame moved. – Melito of Sardis, Fragments of Melito of Sardis, A Discourse Which Was in the Presence of Antoninus Caesar

But, notwithstanding this, I say that so long as a man does not hear, and so does not discern or understand that there is a Lord over these creatures, he is not perhaps to be blamed: because no one finds fault with a blind man though he walk ever so badly. For, in the same manner as the blind, so men also, when they were seeking after God, stumbled upon stones and blocks of wood; and such of them as were rich stumbled upon gold and silver, and were prevented by their stumblings from finding that which they were seeking after. But, now that a voice has been heard through all the earth, declaring that there is a God of truth, and there has been given to every man an eye wherewith to see, those persons are without excuse who are ashamed of incurring the censure of their former companions in error, and yet desire to walk in the right way. For those who are ashamed to be saved must of necessity perish. I therefore counsel them to open their eyes and see: for, lo! light is given abundantly to us all to see thereby; and if, when light has arisen upon us, any one close his eyes so as not to see, into the ditch he must go. But why is a man ashamed of the censure of those who have been in error along with himself? Rather does it behoove him to persuade them to follow in his steps; and, if they should not be persuaded by him, then to disengage himself from their society. For there are some men who are unable to rise from their mother earth, and therefore also do they make them gods from the earth their mother; and they are condemned by the judgments of truth, forasmuch as they apply the name of Him who is unchangeable to those objects which are subject to change, and shrink not from calling those things gods which have been made by the hands of man, and dare to make an image of God whom they have not seen. – Melito of Sardis, Fragments of Melito of Sardis, A Discourse Which Was in the Presence of Antoninus Caesar

“I have very much to say on this subject; but I feel ashamed for those who do not understand that they are superior to the work of their own hands, nor perceive how they give gold to the artists that they may make for them gods, and give them silver for their adornment and honour, and move their riches about from place to place, and then worship them. And what infamy can be greater than this, that a man should worship his riches, and forsake Him who bestowed those riches upon him, and that he should revile man, yet worship the image of man? – Melito of Sardis, Fragments of Melito of Sardis, A Discourse Which Was in the Presence of Antoninus Caesar

“Again, there are persons who say: Whatsoever our fathers have bequeathed to us, that we reverence. Therefore, of course, it is, that those whose fathers have bequeathed them poverty strive to become rich! And those whose fathers did not instruct them, desire to be instructed, and to learn that which their fathers knew not! And why, forsooth, do the children of the blind see, and the children of the lame walk? Nay, it is not well for a man to follow his predecessors, if they be those whose course was evil; but rather that we should turn from that path of theirs, lest that which befell our predecessors should bring disaster upon us also. Wherefore, inquire whether your father’s course was good: and, if so, you also should follow in his steps; but, if your father’s course was very evil, let yours be good, and so let it be with your children after you. Be grieved also for your father because his course is evil, so long as your grief may avail to help him…. For there was once a flood and a wind, and the great men were swept away by a violent blast from the north, but the just were left, for a demonstration of the truth. Again, at another time there was a flood of water, and all men and animals perished in the multitude of waters, but the just were preserved in an ark of wood by the command of God. So also will it be at the last time: there shall be a flood of fire, and the earth shall be burnt up, together with its mountains; and mankind shall be burnt up, along with the idols which they have made, and the carved images which they have worshipped; and the sea shall be burnt up, together with its islands; but the just shall be preserved from wrath, like as were their fellows of the ark from the waters of the deluge. And then shall those who have not known God, and those who have made them idols, bemoan themselves, when they shall see those idols of theirs being burnt up, together with themselves, and nothing shall be found to help them. – Melito of Sardis, Fragments of Melito of Sardis, A Discourse Which Was in the Presence of Antoninus Caesar

• Melito might be referring to Clementine Homilies, “If we forsake the objects of worship handed down to us by our fathers…”

Theophilus of Antioch (168 AD):

“A fluent tongue and an elegant style afford pleasure and such praise as vainglory delights in, to wretched men who have been corrupted in mind; the lover of truth does not give heed to ornamented speeches, but examines the real matter of the speech, what it is, and what kind it is. Since, then, my friend, you have assailed me with empty words, boasting of your gods of wood and stone, hammered and cast, carved and graven, which neither see nor hear, for they are idols, and the works of men’s hands; and since, besides, you call me a Christian, as if this were a damning name to bear, I, for my part, avow that I am a Christian, and bear this name beloved of God, hoping to be serviceable to God. For it is not the case, as you suppose, that the name of God is hard to bear; but possibly you entertain this opinion of God, because you are yourself yet unserviceable to Him.”– Theophilus, To Autolycus, Book 1 chapter 1

But if you say, “Show me your God,” I would reply, “Show me yourself, and I will show you my God.” Show, then, that the eyes of your soul are capable of seeing, and the ears of your heart able to hear; for as those who look with the eyes of the body perceive earthly objects and what concerns this life, and discriminate at the same time between things that differ, whether light or darkness, white or black, deformed or beautiful, well-proportioned and symmetrical or disproportioned and awkward, or monstrous or mutilated; and as in like manner also, by the sense of hearing, we discriminate either sharp, or deep, or sweet sounds; so the same holds good regarding the eyes of the soul and the ears of the heart, that it is by them we are able to behold God. For God is seen by those who are enabled to see Him when they have the eyes of their soul opened: for all have eyes; but in some they are overspread, and do not see the light of the sun. Yet it does not follow, because the blind do not see, that the light of the sun does not shine; but let the blind blame themselves and their own eyes. So also thou, O man, hast the eyes of thy soul overspread by thy sins and evil deeds. As a burnished mirror, so ought man to have his soul pure. When there is rust on the mirror, it is not possible that a man’s face be seen in the mirror; so also when there is sin in a man, such a man cannot behold God. Do you, therefore, show me yourself, whether you are not an adulterer, or a fornicator, or a thief, or a robber, or a purloiner; whether you do not corrupt boys; whether you are not insolent, or a slanderer, or passionate, or envious, or proud, or supercilious; whether you are not a brawler, or covetous, or disobedient to parents; and whether you do not sell your children; for to those who do these things God is not manifest, unless they have first cleansed themselves from all impurity. All these things, then, involve you in darkness, as when a filmy defluxion on the eyes prevents one from beholding the light of the sun: thus also do iniquities, man, involve you in darkness, so that you cannot see God.” – Theophilus to Autolycus, book 1, chapter 2

• If Theophilus was capable of showing his God through a wooden image, he wouldn’t have bashed the pagan for thinking he could show his own god through wood and stone.

You will say, then, to me, “Do you, who see God, explain to me the appearance of God.” Hear, O man. The appearance of God is ineffable and indescribable, and cannot be seen by eyes of flesh. For in glory He is incomprehensible, in greatness unfathomable, in height inconceivable, in power incomparable, in wisdom unrivalled, in goodness inimitable, in kindness unutterable. For if I say He is Light, I name but His own work; if I call Him Word, I name but His sovereignty; if I call Him Mind, I speak but of His wisdom; if I say He is Spirit, I speak of His breath; if I call Him Wisdom, I speak of His offspring; if I call Him Strength, I speak of His sway; if I call Him Power, I am mentioning His activity; if Providence, I but mention His goodness; if I call Him Kingdom, I but mention His glory; if I call Him Lord, I mention His being judge; if I call Him Judge, I speak of Him as being just; if I call Him Father, I speak of all things as being from Him; if I call Him Fire, I but mention His anger. You will say, then, to me, Is God angry? Yes; He is angry with those who act wickedly, but He is good, and kind, and merciful, to those who love and fear Him; for He is a chastener of the godly, and father of the righteous; but he is a judge and punisher of the impious.” – Theophilus, To Autolycus, Book 1, chapter 3

For just as the soul in a man is not seen, being invisible to men, but the soul is understood through the movement of the body, so also God cannot be seen by human eyes, but He is seen and understood through His providence and His works. For in the same way that someone seeing a ship on the sea equipped and running and coming into harbor will clearly suppose that there is a pilot in it who is steering it, so must one understand that God is the pilot of all things, even if He is not seen by fleshly eyes, because He is incomprehensible. For if a man is unable to gaze at the sun, a very small element, because of its excessive heat and power, how much more is a mortal man unable to look upon the inexpressible glory of God? For just as a pomegranate, having a rind which surrounds it, inside has many compartments and chambers separated by membranes, and has many seeds dwelling within it, so the whole creation is contained by the spirit of God, and the spirit which contains, along with the creation, is contained by the hand of God. Therefore, just as the seed of the pomegranate, dwelling within, cannot see the things outside the rind, it being inside, so also man, being contained with the whole creation by the hand of God, cannot behold God. Then an earthly king is believed to exist, although not seen by all, but he is perceived through his laws and ordinances and authorities and powers and images. And do you not wish to perceive God through his works and powers? – Theophilus, To Autolycus, Book 1, chapter 5

This is my God, the Lord of all, who alone stretched out the heaven and established the breadth of the world beneath the heaven, who stirs up the depth of the sea and makes its waves to roar, who rules its might and calms the surge of its waves, who founded the earth upon the waters and gave a spirit to nourish it, whose breath gives life to all, who, if he holds back the spirit with himself, all will fail. Of this one you speak, O man, his spirit you breathe, this one you are ignorant of, and this has happened to you because of the blindness of your soul and the hardness of your heart. But if you wish, you can be healed; give yourself to the physician, and he will pierce the eyes of your soul and of your heart. Who is the physician? God, who heals and gives life through the Word and Wisdom. God through his Word and his Wisdom made all things; for by his Word the heavens were established, and by his Spirit all their power. His wisdom is most excellent; God by wisdom founded the earth, but he prepared the heavens by prudence, by his knowledge the abysses were broken up, and the clouds dropped down the dew. If you understand these things, O man, living purely and holily and justly, you are able to see God. But before all things, let faith and the fear of God lead in your heart, and then you will understand these things. When you put off the mortal and put on incorruption, then you will see God worthily. For God will raise your flesh immortal with your soul; and then, having become immortal, you will see the Immortal, if you now believe in him; and then you will know that you have spoken unjustly against him. – Theophilus, To Autolycus, Book 1, chapter 7

Why should I further recount the multitude of animals worshipped by the Egyptians, both reptiles, and cattle, and wild beasts, and birds, and river-fishes; and even wash-pots and disgraceful noises? But if you cite the Greeks and the other nations, they worship stones and wood, and other kinds of material substances,—the images, as we have just been saying, of dead men. – Theophilus (168 AD) To Autolycus, Book 1, Chapter 10

And what great thing is it if God made the world out of existent materials? For even a human artist, when he gets material from some one, makes of it what he pleases. But the power of God is manifested in this, that out of things that are not He makes whatever He pleases; just as the bestowal of life and motion is the prerogative of no other than God alone. For even man makes indeed an image, but reason and breath, or feeling, he cannot give to what he has made. But God has this property in excess of what man can do, in that He makes a work, endowed with reason, life, sensation. As, therefore, in all these respects God is more powerful than man, so also in this; that out of things that are not He creates and has created things that are, and whatever He pleases, as He pleases. – Theophilus, To Autolycus, book 2, chapter 4

And, for the rest, would that in a kindly spirit you would investigate divine things—I mean the things that are spoken by the prophets—in order that, by comparing what is said by us with the utterances of the others, you may be able to discover the truth. We have shown from their own histories, which they have compiled, that the names of those who are called gods, are found to be the names of men who lived among them, as we have shown above. And to this day their images are daily fashioned, idols, “the works of men’s hands.” And these the mass of foolish men serve, whilst they reject the maker and fashioner of all things and the nourisher of all breath of life, giving credit to vain doctrines through the deceitfulness of the senseless tradition received from their fathers. But God at least, the Father and Creator of the universe, did not abandon mankind, but gave a law, and sent holy prophets to declare and teach the race of men, that each one of us might awake and understand that there is one God. And they also taught us to refrain from unlawful idolatry, and adultery, and murder, fornication, theft, avarice, false swearing, wrath, and every incontinence and uncleanness; and that whatever a man would not wish to be done to himself, he should not do to another; and thus he who acts righteously shall escape the eternal punishments, and be thought worthy of the eternal life from God. – Theophilus (168 AD) To Autolycus, Book 2, Chapter 34

Now we also confess that God exists, but that He is one, the creator, and maker, and fashioner of this universe; and we know that all things are arranged by His providence, but by Him alone. And we have learned a holy law, but we have as lawgiver the true God, who also teaches us to act justly and to be pious and to do good. And concerning piety he says: “You shall have no other gods before me. You shall not make for yourself an idol, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. You shall not bow down to them or serve them; for I am the Lord your God.” – Theophilus (168 AD) To Autolycus, Book 3, Chapter 9 – Theophilus (168 AD) To Autolycus, Book 3, Chapter 9

Athenagoras of Athens (176 AD):

But grant that they acknowledge the same. What then? Because the multitude, who cannot distinguish between matter and God, or see how great is the interval which lies between them, pray to idols made of matter, are we therefore, who do distinguish and separate the uncreated and the created, that which is and that which is not, that which is apprehended by the understanding and that which is perceived by the senses, and who give the fitting name to each of them,—are we to come and worship images (προσκυνήσομεν ἀγάλματα)? If, indeed, matter and God are the same, two names for one thing, then certainly, in not regarding stocks and stones, gold and silver, as gods, we are guilty of impiety. But if they are at the greatest possible remove from one another—as far asunder as the artist and the materials of his art—why are we called to account? For as is the potter and the clay (matter being the clay, and the artist the potter), so is God, the Framer of the world, and matter, which is subservient to Him for the purposes of His art. But as the clay cannot become vessels of itself without art, so neither did matter, which is capable of taking all forms, receive, apart from God the Framer, distinction and shape and order. And as we do not hold the pottery of more worth than him who made it, nor the vessels of glass and gold than him who wrought them; but if there is anything about them elegant in art we praise the artificer, and it is he who reaps the glory of the vessels: even so with matter and God—the glory and honour of the orderly arrangement of the world belongs of right not to matter, but to God, the Framer of matter. So that, if we were to regard the various forms of matter as gods, we should seem to be without any sense of the true God, because we should be putting the things which are dissoluble and perishable on a level with that which is eternal. – Athenagoras (177 AD) A Plea for the Christians Chapter 15

You perceive, then, that the time since representations of form and the making of images (εἰκόν) began is so short, that we can name the artist of each particular god. The image of Artemis at Ephesus, for example, and that of Athenâ (or rather of Athelâ, for so is she named by those who speak more in the style of the mysteries; for thus was the ancient image (εἰκόν) made of the olive-tree called), and the sitting figure of the same goddess, were made by Endœus, a pupil of Dædalus; the Pythian god was the work of Theodorus and Telecles; and the Delian god and Artemis are due to the art of Tectæus and Angelio; Hera in Samos and in Argos came from the hands of Smilis, and the other statues were by Phidias; Aphrodité the courtezan in Cnidus is the production of Praxiteles; Asclepius in Epidaurus is the work of Phidias. In a word, of not one of these statues can it be said that it was not made by man. If, then, these are gods, why did they not exist from the beginning? Why, in sooth, are they younger than those who made them? Why, in sooth, in order to their coming into existence, did they need the aid of men and art? They are nothing but earth, and stones, and matter, and curious art. – Athenagoras (177 AD), A Plea for the Christians, Chapter 17

But, since it is affirmed by some that, although these are only images (εἰκόνας), yet there exist gods in honour of whom they are made; and that the supplications and sacrifices presented to the images (εἰκόνες) are to be referred to the gods, and are in fact made to the gods; and that there is not any other way of coming to them, for

“’Tis hard for man
To meet in presence visible a God;”

and whereas, in proof that such is the fact, they adduce the energies (ἐνεργείας) possessed by certain images, let us examine into the power attached to their names. – Athenagoras (177 AD), A Plea for the Christians, Chapter 18

• John of Damascus appealed to the same pagan concept to justify image-worship: “These and such things I revere and venerate, and every holy temple of God and everything upon which God is named, not because of their own nature, but because they are receptacles of divine energy and through them and in them God was pleased to work our salvation. For I revere and venerate angels and men and all matter that partakes of divine energy and has ministered to my salvation, on account of the divine energy.” – John of Damascus, Speeches on Images Three, part 27

You may say, however, since you excel all men in understanding, “How comes it to pass, then, that some of the idols manifest power, if those to whom we erect the statues are not gods? For it is not likely that images (εἰκόνας) destitute of life and motion can of themselves do anything without a mover.” That in various places, cities, and nations, certain effects are brought about in the name of idols, we are far from denying. None the more, however, if some have received benefit, and others, on the contrary, suffered harm, shall we deem those to be gods who have produced the effects in either case. But I have made careful inquiry, both why it is that you think the idols to have this power, and who they are that, usurping their names, produce the effects. It is necessary for me, however, in attempting to show who they are that produce the effects ascribed to the idols, and that they are not gods, to have recourse to some witnesses from among the philosophers. – Athenagoras (177 AD), A Plea for the Christians, Chapter 23

They who draw men to idols, then, are the aforesaid demons, who are eager for the blood of the sacrifices, and lick them; but the gods that please the multitude, and whose names are given to the images, were men, as may be learned from their history. And that it is the demons who act under their names, is proved by the nature of their operations. For some castrate, as Rhea; others wound and slaughter, as Artemis; the Tauric goddess puts all strangers to death. I pass over those who lacerate with knives and scourges of bones, and shall not attempt to describe all the kinds of demons; for it is not the part of a god to incite to things against nature. “But when the demon plots against a man, He first inflicts some hurt upon his mind.” But God, being perfectly good, is eternally doing good. – Athenagoras (177 AD) A Plea for the Christians Chapter 26

What then? In the first place, the irrational and fantastic movements of the soul about opinions produce a diversity of images (εἴδωλα) from time to time: some they derive from matter, and some they fashion and bring forth for themselves; and this happens to a soul especially when it partakes of the material spirit and becomes mingled with it, looking not at heavenly things and their Maker, but downwards to earthly things, wholly at the earth, as being now mere flesh and blood, and no longer pure spirit. These irrational and fantastic movements of the soul, then, give birth to empty visions in the mind, by which it becomes madly set on idols. When, too, a tender and susceptible soul, which has no knowledge or experience of sounder doctrines, and is unaccustomed to contemplate truth, and to consider thoughtfully the Father and Maker of all things, gets impressed with false opinions respecting itself, then the demons who hover about matter, greedy of sacrificial odours and the blood of victims, and ever ready to lead men into error, avail themselves of these delusive movements of the souls of the multitude; and, taking possession of their thoughts, cause to flow into the mind empty visions as if coming from the idols and the statues; and when, too, a soul of itself, as being immortal, moves comformably to reason, either predicting the future or healing the present, the demons claim the glory for themselves. – Athenagoras a plea for the Christians, Chapter 27

For reason cannot discover any use which might be deemed a cause for the creation of men, since immortals are free from want, and in need of no help from men in order to their existence; and irrational beings are by nature in a state of subjection, and perform those services for men for which each of them was intended, but are not intended in their turn to make use of men: for it neither was nor is right to lower that which rules and takes the lead to the use of the inferior, or to subject the rational to the irrational, which is not suited to rule. – Athenagoras, On the Resurrection of the Dead, Chapter 12

Irenaeus of Lyon (180 AD):

They also have an image of Simon fashioned after the likeness of Jupiter, and another of Helena in the shape of Minerva; and these they worship. In fine, they have a name derived from Simon, the author of these most impious doctrines, being called Simonians; and from them “knowledge, falsely so called,” received its beginning, as one may learn even from their own assertions. – Irenaeus (180 AD), Against Heresies, Book 1, Chapter 23

[He says] salvation belongs to the soul alone, for the body is by nature subject to corruption. He declares, too, that the prophecies were derived from those powers who were the makers of the world, but the law was specially given by their chief, who led the people out of the land of Egypt. He attaches no importance to [the question regarding] meats offered in sacrifice to idols, thinks them of no consequence, and makes use of them without any hesitation; he holds also the use of other things, and the practice of every kind of lust, a matter of perfect indifference. These men, moreover, practice magic; and they use images, incantations, invocations, and every other kind of curious art. Coining also certain names as if they were those of the angels, they proclaim some of these as belonging to the first, and others to the second heaven; and then they strive to set forth the names, principles, angels, and powers of the three hundred and sixty-five imagined heavens. – Irenaeus (180 AD), Against Heresies, Book 1, Chapter 24

Others of them employ outward marks, branding their disciples inside the lobe of the right ear. From among these also arose Marcellina, who came to Rome under [the episcopate of] Anicetus, and, holding these doctrines, she led multitudes astray. They style themselves Gnostics. They also possess images [imagines], some of them painted, and others formed from different kinds of material; while they maintain that a likeness of Christ was made by Pilate at that time when Jesus lived among them. They crown these images, and set them up along with the images of the philosophers of the world, that is to say, with the images of Pythagoras, and Plato, and Aristotle, and the rest. They have also other modes of honouring these images, after the same manner of the Gentiles. – Irenaeus (180 AD), Against Heresies, Book 1, Chapter 25

• If the church in Irenaeus’ time possessed images, why would he make it a point to mention that heretical groups possess images, in the context of listing their other heretical practices, like invoking angels and using incantations? Also, what are the modes by which the Gentiles honor images? What is wrong with crowning images of Christ, bowing to them and offering them incense? Why did Irenaeus mention that they did these things to images of Christ? Wouldn’t that be a GOOD thing to do? Is Irenaeus trying to exonerate them by first mentioning something GOOD they were doing? After all, wouldn’t YOU worship an image of Christ made by Pilate? Obviously, Irenaeus is criticizing something forbidden by the church, or else he wouldn’t include it right alongside their other deviant practices!

Wherefore, also, those who are in truth His disciples, receiving grace from Him, do in His name perform [miracles], so as to promote the welfare of other men, according to the gift which each one has received from Him. For some do certainly and truly drive out devils, so that those who have thus been cleansed from evil spirits frequently both believe [in Christ], and join themselves to the Church. Others have foreknowledge of things to come: they see visions, and utter prophetic expressions. Others still, heal the sick by laying their hands upon them, and they are made whole. Yea, moreover, as I have said, the dead even have been raised up, and remained among us for many years. And what shall I more say? It is not possible to name the number of the gifts which the Church, [scattered] throughout the whole world, has received from God, in the name of Jesus Christ, who was crucified under Pontius Pilate, and which she exerts day by day for the benefit of the Gentiles, neither practising deception upon any, nor taking any reward from them [on account of such miraculous interpositions]. For as she has received freely from God, freely also does she minister [to others]. Nor does she [the church] perform anything by angelic invocations, or by incantations, or by any other wicked curious art; but, directing her prayers to the Lord, who made all things, in a pure, sincere, and straightforward spirit, she has been accustomed to work miracles for the advantage of mankind, and not to lead them into error.- Irenaeus (180 AD), Against Heresies, Book 2, Chapter 32

Compare to:

• It is not possible at the same time to know God and to address prayers to images. – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus, Book 7, Chapter 65
• Why do you wallow on the ground, and offer supplication to things which are without sense? – Melito of Sardis, Fragments of Melito of Sardis, A Discourse Which Was in the Presence of Antoninus Caesar
• Does anyone worship or pray with his eyes fixed on the image, without being persuaded that the image is hearing his petition and without hoping that it will give him what he wants? Probably not. – Augustine, Exposition 2 of Psalm 113, chapter 5

And that these promises were going to be inherited by the calling of the Gentiles, in whom also the New Covenant was opened, Isaiah says in this way, “Thus says the God of Israel, ‘In that day man shall be confident in His Maker, and his eyes shall look to the Holy One of Israel, and they shall not be confident in altars nor in the works of their hands, which their fingers have made.’“ For most manifestly these things are said with regard to those who forsake idols and believe in God, our Maker, through the Holy One of Israel; and the Holy One of Israel is Christ, who became visible to men, to whom we look, not being confident in altars nor in the works of our hands.

92. And that He was to be manifested among us, that the Son of God became Son of man, and to be found by us who before were in ignorance, the Word Himself thus says in Isaiah: I have been manifested to those that ask not for me, I have been found by those that sought me not. I said: ho, here I am, to a nation that did not call upon my name.

93. And that this nation was to become a holy people was thus announced through Hosea in the twelve prophets: “And I will call that which was not my people, my people; and her that was not beloved, beloved. It shall be, in the place where it shall be called not my people, there they shall be called sons of the living God;” that is, what was said also by John the Baptist, that God is able of stones to raise up children to Abraham. For our hearts, taken away from stony services through faith see God and become sons of Abraham who was justified by faith. And therefore God says through the prophet Ezekiel: “And I will give them another heart, and put a new spirit into them. And I will take away the stony heart out of their flesh, and will give them another heart of flesh, so that they shall walk in my commandments and keep my judgements, and do them. And they shall be my people, and I will be their God.” – Irenaeus, Demonstration of Apostolic Preaching by Irenaeus, Chapter 91-93

For Matthew the apostle— knowing, as one and the same God, Him who had given promise to Abraham, that He would make his seed as the stars of heaven, and Him who, by His Son Christ Jesus, has called us to the knowledge of Himself, from the worship of stones, so that those who were not a people were made a people, and she beloved who was not beloved —declares that John, when preparing the way for Christ, said to those who were boasting of their relationship [to Abraham] according to the flesh, but who had their mind tinged and stuffed with all manner of evil, preaching that repentance which should call them back from their evil doings, said, “O generation of vipers, who hath shown you to flee from the wrath to come? – Irenaeus, Against Heresies, book 3, chapter 9

This is also made clear from the words of the Lord, who did truly reveal the Son of God to those of the circumcision— Him who had been foretold as Christ by the prophets; that is, He set Himself forth, who had restored liberty to men, and bestowed on them the inheritance of incorruption. And again, the apostles taught the Gentiles that they should leave vain stocks [of wood] and stones, which they imagined to be gods, and worship the true God, who had created and made all the human family, and, by means of His creation, did nourish, increase, strengthen, and preserve them in being; and that they might look for His Son Jesus Christ, who redeemed us from apostasy with His own blood, so that we should also be a sanctified people,—who shall also descend from heaven in His Father’s power, and pass judgment upon all, and who shall freely give the good things of God to those who shall have kept His commandments. – Irenaeus, Against Heresies, book 3, chapter 5

This is the mystery which he says was made known to him by revelation, that He who suffered under Pontius Pilate, the same is Lord of all, and King, and God, and Judge, receiving power from Him who is the God of all, because He became “obedient unto death, even the death of the cross.” And inasmuch as this is true, when preaching to the Athenians on the Areopagus—where, no Jews being present, he had it in his power to preach God with freedom of speech—he said to them: “God, who made the world, and all things therein, He, being Lord of heaven and earth, dwelleth not in temples made with hands; neither is He touched (tractatur) by men’s hands, as though He needed anything, seeing He giveth to all life, and breath, and all things; who hath made from one blood the whole race of men to dwell upon the face of the whole earth,  predetermining the times according to the boundary of their habitation, to seek the Deity, if by any means they might be able to track Him out, or find Him, although He be not far from each of us. For in Him we live, and move, and have our being, as certain men of your own have said, For we are also His offspring. Inasmuch, then, as we are the offspring of God, we ought not to think that the Deity is like unto gold or silver, or stone graven by art or man’s device. Therefore God, winking at the times of ignorance, does now command all men everywhere to turn to Him with repentance; because He hath appointed a day, on which the world shall be judged in righteousness by the man Jesus; whereof He hath given assurance by raising Him from the dead.” – Irenaeus, Against Heresies, book 3, chapter 12

By these arguments He unquestionably made it clear, that He who spake to Moses out of the bush, and declared Himself to be the God of the fathers, He is the God of the living. For who is the God of the living unless He who is God, and above whom there is no other God? Whom also Daniel the prophet, when Cyrus king of the Persians said to him, “Why dost thou not worship Bel?” did proclaim, saying, “Because I do not worship idols made with hands, but the living God, who established the heaven and the earth and has dominion over all flesh.” Again did he say, “I will adore the Lord my God, because He is the living God.” He, then, who was adored by the prophets as the living God, He is the God of the living; and His Word is He who also spake to Moses, who also put the Sadducees to silence, who also bestowed the gift of resurrection, thus revealing [both] truths to those who are blind, that is, the resurrection and God [in His true character]. – Irenaeus, Against Heresies, book 4, chapter 5

For not alone upon Abraham’s account did He say these things, but also that He might point out how all who have known God from the beginning, and have foretold the advent of Christ, have received the revelation from the Son Himself; who also in the last times was made visible and passible, and spake with the human race, that He might from the stones raise up children unto Abraham, and fulfil the promise which God had given him, and that He might make his seed as the stars of heaven, as John the Baptist says: “For God is able from these stones to raise up children unto Abraham.” Now, Jesus did this by drawing us off from the religion of stones, and bringing us over from hard and fruitless cogitations, and establishing in us a faith like to Abraham. As Paul does also testify, saying that we are children of Abraham because of the similarity of our faith, and the promise of inheritance. – Irenaeus, Against Heresies, book 4, chapter 7

Apollonius of Rome (185 AD):

Perennius said: “In accordance with the decree of the senate I advise you to repent, honour, and worship the gods that we all honour and worship, and so remain alive with us.” Apollonius replied: “I acknowledge the decree of the senate, Perennius, but I have become pious so that I may not honour idols created by human hands. I will not worship falsely named gods of gold, silver, bronze, iron, wood, or stone, which neither see nor hear, being the work of craftsmen, goldsmiths, artists, and woodturners—carved by human hands and unable to move of themselves. I serve God in heaven and worship Him alone, the one who planted a living soul in us all and provides us with life day by day. I will not demean myself, Perennius, or throw myself under the rubble. It is shameful to worship what is of equal worth to humans or even lower than demons. The meanest men sin whenever they worship what comes under the heading of mere substance: cold stone, dry wood, inert metal, or dead bones. What is the meaning of such futile deceit? Egyptians worship a bowl—known to many as a footwash bowl—along with other unclean things. What is the meaning of such nonsense? Athenians even now worship the bronze head of a bull, which they call ‘Good Fortune of Athenians’; in doing so they cannot worship their own gods, a practice damaging to the soul of those who believe. How are these things different from burned clay or crumbling potsherds? They pray to statues of demons that do not hear, that demand nothing and offer nothing. Their forms are deceptive: they have ears but do not hear; they have eyes but do not see; they have hands but cannot move them; they have feet but cannot walk. The form does not change the substance. I think that Socrates was making fun of Athenians when he swore by a plane tree and wild wood.” — Apollonius, The Trial and Martyrdom of Apollonius, chapter 13-19

Clement of Alexandria (195 AD):

The second word [commandment] intimated that men ought not to take and confer the august power of God (which is the name, for this alone were many even yet capable of learning), and transfer His title to things created and vain, which human artificers have made, among which “He that is” is not ranked. For in His uncreated identity, “He that is” is absolutely alone. – Clement of Alexandria The Stromata Book 6 Chapter 16

This is followed by the command respecting adultery. Now it is adultery, if one, abandoning the ecclesiastical and true knowledge, and the persuasion respecting God, accedes to false and incongruous opinion, either by deifying any created object, or by making an idol of anything that exists not, so as to overstep, or rather step from, knowledge. And to the Gnostic false opinion is foreign, as the true belongs to him, and is allied with him. Wherefore the noble apostle calls one of the kinds of fornication, idolatry, in following the prophet, who says: “[My people] hath committed fornication with stock and stone. They have said to the stock, Thou art my father; and to the stone, Thou hast begotten me.” – Clement of Alexandria The Stromata Book 6 Chapter 16

To me, therefore, that Thracian Orpheus, that Theban, and that Methymnæan,—men, and yet unworthy of the name,—seem to have been deceivers, who, under the pretence of poetry corrupting human life, possessed by a spirit of artful sorcery for purposes of destruction, celebrating crimes in their orgies, and making human woes the materials of religious worship, were the first to entice men to idols; nay, to build up the stupidity of the nations with blocks of wood and stone,—that is, statues and images,—subjecting to the yoke of extremest bondage the truly noble freedom of those who lived as free citizens under heaven by their songs and incantations. But not such is my song, which has come to loose, and that speedily, the bitter bondage of tyrannizing demons; and leading us back to the mild and loving yoke of piety, recalls to heaven those that had been cast prostrate to the earth. – Clement of Alexandria Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 1

But further, when Thrasybulus was bringing back the exiles from Phyla, and wished to elude observation, a pillar became his guide as he marched over a trackless region. To Thrasybulus by night, the sky being moonless and stormy, a fire appeared leading the way, which, having conducted them safely, left them near Munychia, where is now the altar of the light-bringer (Phosphorus). From such an instance, therefore, let our accounts become credible to the Greeks, namely, that it was possible for the omnipotent God to make the pillar of fire, which was their guide on their march, go before the Hebrews by night. It is said also in a certain oracle — “A pillar to the Thebans is joy-inspiring Bacchus,” from the history of the Hebrews. Also Euripides says, in Antiope — “In the chambers within, the herdsman,
With chaplet of ivy, pillar of the Evœan god.” The pillar indicates that God cannot be portrayed. The pillar of light, too, in addition to its pointing out that God cannot be represented, shows also the stability and the permanent duration of the Deity, and His unchangeable and inexpressible light. Before, then, the invention of the forms of images, the ancients erected pillars, and reverenced them as statues of the Deity. – Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata, Book 1, chapter 24

Superstition, then, as was to be expected, having taken its rise thus, became the fountain of insensate wickedness; and not being subsequently checked, but having gone on augmenting and rushing along in full flood, it became the originator of many demons, and was displayed in sacrificing hecatombs, appointing solemn assemblies, setting up images, and building temples, which were in reality tombs: for I will not pass these over in silence, but make a thorough exposure of them, though called by the august name of temples; that is, the tombs which got the name of temples. But do ye now at length quite give up your superstition, feeling ashamed to regard sepulchres with religious veneration. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 3

If, in addition, I take and set before you for inspection these very images, you will, as you go over them, find how truly silly is the custom in which you have been reared, of worshipping the senseless works of men’s hands. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 4

“ But now, at His appearance, lost as we already were, He accomplished our salvation. For that wicked reptile monster, by his enchantments, enslaves and plagues men even till now; inflicting, as seems to me, such barbarous vengeance on them as those who are said to bind the captives to corpses till they rot together. This wicked tyrant and serpent, accordingly, binding fast with the miserable chain of superstition whomsoever he can draw to his side from their birth, to stones, and stocks, and images, and such like idols, may with truth be said to have taken and buried living men with those dead idols, till both suffer corruption together.“-Clement of Alexandria, An Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 1

In Rome, the historian Varro says that in ancient times the Xoaron of Mars—the idol by which he was worshipped—was a spear, artists not having yet applied themselves to this specious pernicious art; but when art flourished, error increased. That of stones and stocks—and, to speak briefly, of dead matter—you have made images of human form, by which you have produced a counterfeit of piety, and slandered the truth, is now as clear as can be; but such proof as the point may demand must not be declined. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 4

But if you attend not to the prophetess, hear at least your own philosopher, the Ephesian Heraclitus, upbraiding images with their senselessness: “And to these images they pray, with the same result as if one were to talk to the walls of his house.” For are they not to be wondered at who worship stones, and place them before the doors, as if capable of activity? They worship Hermes as a god, and place Aguieus as a doorkeeper. For if people upbraid them with being devoid of sensation, why worship them as gods? And if they are thought to be endowed with sensation, why place them before the door? The Romans, who ascribed their greatest successes to Fortune, and regarded her as a very great deity, took her statue to the privy, and erected it there, assigning to the goddess as a fitting temple—the necessary. But senseless wood and stone, and rich gold, care not a whit for either savoury odour, or blood, or smoke, by which, being at once honoured and fumigated, they are blackened; no more do they for honour or insult. And these images are more worthless than any animal. I am at a loss to conceive how objects devoid of sense were deified, and feel compelled to pity as miserable wretches those that wander in the mazes of this folly: for if some living creatures have not all the senses, as worms and caterpillars, and such as even from the first appear imperfect, as moles and the shrew-mouse, which Nicander says is blind and uncouth; yet are they superior to those utterly senseless idols and images. For they have some one sense,—say, for example, hearing, or touching, or something analogous to smell or taste; while images do not possess even one sense. There are many creatures that have neither sight, nor hearing, nor speech, such as the genus of oysters, which yet live and grow, and are affected by the changes of the moon. But images, being motionless, inert, and senseless, are bound, nailed, glued,—are melted, filed, sawed, polished, carved. The senseless earth is dishonoured by the makers of images, who change it by their art from its proper nature, and induce men to worship (προσκυνοῦσιν) it; and the makers of gods worship not gods and demons, but in my view earth and art, which go to make up images. For, in sooth, the image is only dead matter shaped by the craftsman’s hand. But we have no sensible image of sensible matter, but an image that is perceived by the mind alone,—God, who alone is truly God. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 4

And again, when involved in calamities, the superstitious worshippers of stones, though they have learned by the event that senseless matter is not to be worshipped (προσκυνηταί), yet, yielding to the pressure of misfortune, become the victims of their superstition; and though despising the images, yet not wishing to appear wholly to neglect them, are found fault with by those gods by whose names the images are called. – Clement of Alexandria, An Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 4

Matter always needs art to fashion it, but the deity needs nothing. Art has come forward to do its work, and the matter is clothed with its shape; and while the preciousness of the material makes it capable of being turned to profitable account, it is only on account of its form that it comes to be deemed worthy of veneration. Thy image, if considered as to its origin, is gold, it is wood, it is stone, it is earth, which has received shape from the artist’s hand. But I have been in the habit of walking on the earth, not of worshipping it. For I hold it wrong to entrust my spirit’s hopes to things destitute of the breath of life. We must therefore approach as close as possible to the images. How peculiarly inherent deceit is in them, is manifest from their very look. For the forms of the images are plainly stamped with the characteristic nature of demons. If one go round and inspect the pictures and images, he will at a glance recognise your gods from their shameful forms. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 4

But it is with a different kind of spell that art deludes you, if it leads you not to the indulgence of amorous affections: it leads you to pay religious honour and worship to images and pictures. The picture is like. Well and good! Let art receive its meed of praise, but let it not deceive man by passing itself off for truth. The horse stands quiet; the dove flutters not, its wing is motionless. But the cow of Dædalus, made of wood, allured the savage bull; and art having deceived him, compelled him to meet a woman full of licentious passion. Such frenzy have mischief-working arts created in the minds of the insensate. On the other hand, apes are admired by those who feed and care for them, because nothing in the shape of images and girls’ ornaments of wax or clay deceives them. You then will show yourselves inferior to apes by cleaving to stone, and wood, and gold, and ivory images, and to pictures. Your makers of such mischievous toys—the sculptors and makers of images, the painters and workers in metal, and the poets—have introduced a motley crowd of divinities: in the fields, Satyrs and Pans; in the woods, Nymphs, and Oreads, and Hamadryads; and besides, in the waters, the rivers, and fountains, the Naiads; and in the sea the Nereids. And now the Magi boast that the demons are the ministers of their impiety, reckoning them among the number of their domestics, and by their charms compelling them to be their slaves. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 4

And of what kind, on the other hand, are your other images? Diminutive Pans, and naked girls, and drunken Satyrs, and phallic tokens, painted naked in pictures disgraceful for filthiness. And more than this: you are not ashamed in the eyes of all to look at representations of all forms of licentiousness which are portrayed in public places, but set them up and guard them with scrupulous care, consecrating these pillars of shamelessness at home, as if, forsooth, they were the images of your gods, depicting on them equally the postures of Philænis and the labours of Heracles. Not only the use of these, but the sight of them, and the very hearing of them, we denounce as deserving the doom of oblivion. Your ears are debauched, your eyes commit fornication, your looks commit adultery before you embrace. O ye that have done violence to man, and have devoted to shame what is divine in this handiwork of God, you disbelieve everything that you may indulge your passions, and that ye may believe in idols, because you have a craving after their licentiousness, but disbelieve God, because you cannot bear a life of self-restraint. You have hated what was better, and valued what was worse, having been spectators indeed of virtue, but actors of vice. Happy, therefore, so to say, alone are all those with one accord,—

“Who shall refuse to look on any temples
And altars, worthless seats of dumb stones,
And idols of stone, and images made by hands,
Stained with the life’s-blood, and with sacrifices
Of quadrupeds, and bipeds, and fowls, and butcheries of wild beasts.”

For we are expressly prohibited from exercising a deceptive art: “For thou shalt not make,” says the prophet, “the likeness of anything which is in heaven above or in the earth beneath.” – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 4

But while you bestow the greatest pains that the image may be fashioned with the most exquisite beauty possible, you exercise no care to guard against your becoming like images for stupidity. Accordingly, with the utmost clearness and brevity, the prophetic word condemns this practice: “For all the gods of the nations are the images of demons; but God made the heavens, and what is in heaven.” Some, however, who have fallen into error, I know not how, worship God’s work instead of God Himself,—the sun and the moon, and the rest of the starry choir,—absurdly imagining these, which are but instruments for measuring time, to be gods; “for by His word they were established, and all their host by the breath of His mouth.” – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 4

Whence, O Plato, is that hint of the truth which you give? Whence this rich copiousness of diction, which proclaims piety with oracular utterance? The tribes of the barbarians, he says, are wiser than these; I know your teachers, even if you would conceal them. You have learned geometry from the Egyptians, astronomy from the Babylonians; the charms of healing you have got from the Thracians; the Assyrians also have taught you many things; but for the laws that are consistent with truth, and your sentiments respecting God, you are indebted to the Hebrews,

Who do not worship through vain deceits
The works of men, of gold, and brass, and silver, and ivory,
And images of dead men, of wood and stone,
Which other men, led by their foolish inclinations, worship;
But raise to heaven pure arms:
When they rise from bed, purifying themselves with water,
And worship alone the Eternal, who reigns for ever more.

– Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) Exhortation to the Heathen Chapter 6

But against the worshippers of idols he is exasperated, saying, To whom will you liken the Lord, or to what likeness will you compare Him? Has not the artificer made the image, or the goldsmith melted the gold and plated it with gold? — and so on. Be not therefore idolaters, but even now beware of the threatenings; for the graven images and the works of men’s hands shall wail, or rather they that trust in them, for matter is devoid of sensation. Once more he says, The Lord will shake the cities that are inhabited, and grasp the world in His hand like a nest. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 8

“For then,” says a certain prophecy, “the affairs here turn out unfortunately, when men put their trust in images.” Let the meaner artists, too—for I will not stop calling—come. None of these ever made a breathing image, or out of earth moulded soft flesh. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 10

That life, then, which is occupied with so much earnestness about matter, seems to me to be nothing else than full of insanity. And custom, which has made you taste bondage and unreasonable care, is fostered by vain opinion; and ignorance, which has proved to the human race the cause of unlawful rites and delusive shows, and also of deadly plagues and hateful images, has, by devising many shapes of demons, stamped on all that follow it the mark of long-continued death. Receive, then, the water of the word; wash, ye polluted ones; purify yourselves from custom, by sprinkling yourselves with the drops of truth. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 10

If, then, none of these, nor of the images formed by human hands, and destitute of feeling, is held to be a God, while a providence exercised about us is evidently the result of a divine power, it remains only to acknowledge this, that He alone who is truly God, only truly is and subsists. But those who are insensible to this are like men who have drunk mandrake or some other drug. May God grant that you may at length awake from this slumber, and know God; and that neither Gold, nor Stone, nor Tree, nor Action, nor Suffering, nor Disease, nor Fear, may appear in your eyes as a god. For there are, in sooth, “on the fruitful earth thrice ten thousand” demons, not immortal, nor indeed mortal; for they are not endowed with sensation, so as to render them capable of death, but only things of wood and stone, that hold despotic sway over men insulting and violating life through the force of custom. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 10

Oh, happier far the beasts than men involved in error! who live in ignorance as you, but do not counterfeit the truth. There are no tribes of flatterers among them. Fishes have no superstition: the birds worship not a single image; only they look with admiration on heaven, since, deprived as they are of reason, they are unable to know God. So are you not ashamed for living through so many periods of life in impiety, making yourselves more irrational than irrational creatures? – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 10

We must have no communion with demons. Nor must we crown the living image of God after the manner of dead idols. For the fair crown of amaranth is laid up for those who have lived well. This flower the earth is not able to bear; heaven alone is competent to produce it. Further, it were irrational in us, who have heard that the Lord was crowned with thorns, to crown ourselves with flowers, insulting thus the sacred passion of the Lord. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) The Instructor, Book 2, Chapter 8

Those, therefore, who are devoted to the image of the beautiful, that is, love of finery, not the beautiful itself, and who under a fair name again practice idolatry, are to be banished far from the truth, as those who by opinion, not knowledge, dream of the nature of the beautiful; and so life here is to them only a deep sleep of ignorance; from which it becomes us to rouse ourselves and haste to that which is truly beautiful and comely, and desire to grasp this alone, leaving the ornaments of earth to the world, and bidding them farewell before we fall quite asleep. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) The Instructor, Book 2, Chapter 11

It’s absurd for one person to live in luxury while many around them are poor. Isn’t it more honorable to help many people than to live in extravagance? Isn’t it wiser to spend money on people than on stones and gold? Isn’t it more useful to have noble friends than lifeless decorations? What farm could bring more benefit than giving generously? – Clement of Alexandria, The Instructor/ Paedagogus, Book 2, Chapter 13

For as the Greek fable has it, it was not a fortunate thing for the beautiful Narcissus to have been the beholder of his own image. And if Moses commanded men to make not an image to represent God by art, how can these women be right, who by their own reflection produce an imitation of their own likeness, in order to the falsifying of their faces? – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) The Instructor, Book 3, Chapter 2

Numa the king of the Romans was a Pythagorean, and aided by the precepts of Moses, prohibited from making an image of God in human form, and of the shape of a living creature. Accordingly, during the first hundred and seventy years, though building temples, they made no cast or graven image. For Numa secretly showed them that the Best of Beings could not be apprehended except by the mind alone. Thus philosophy, a thing of the highest utility, flourished in antiquity among the barbarians, shedding its light over the nations. And afterwards it came to Greece. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) The Stromata, Book 1, Chapter 15

For God has respect to the very thought, since Lot’s wife, who had merely voluntarily turned towards worldly wickedness, He left a senseless mass, rendering her a pillar of salt, and fixed her so that she advanced no further, not as a stupid and useless image, but to season and salt him who has the power of spiritual perception. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) The Stromata, Book 2, Chapter 14

But it is clear to every one that piety, which teaches to worship and honour, is the highest and oldest cause; and the law itself exhibits justice, and teaches wisdom, by abstinence from sensible images, and by inviting to the Maker and Father of the universe. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) The Stromata, Book 2, Chapter 18

“Let not the sun go down on your wrath,” says the Scripture. And He who said, “You shall not covet,” removed all resentment; for anger is found to be an impulse of desire in a gentle soul, disproportionately aimed at taking revenge. In like manner, sleep is advised to be disturbed, so that one may remember neither any dream nor daytime sleep, nor even the pleasure of the night. Perhaps he was also hinting that dark fantasy must be dispersed by the light of truth: “Be angry and do not sin,” says David, teaching that one must not consent to the imagination nor carry out the deed by ratifying anger. Again, “Do not sail on land,” is a Pythagorean symbol, signifying that one ought to avoid tax-farming and similar ventures, which are turbulent and unstable. For this reason, the Word says that tax collectors will be saved with difficulty. And again, “Don’t wear a ring, nor engrave on it the images of the gods,” commands Pythagoras—just as Moses also long ago explicitly legislated that no carved, molten, molded, or painted statue or likeness should be made, so that we do not cling to sensible things, but pass on to intelligible things. For familiarity with sight breeds contempt for the majesty of the divine, and to worship an immaterial essence through matter is to dishonor it through sense perception. Wherefore also the wisest of the Egyptian priests designated the seat of Athena to be in the open air, just as the Hebrews built their temple without an image. And there are some who, worshipping God, make a representation of the sky containing the stars and bow down (προσκυνοῦσιν) before it. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) The Stromata, Book 5, Chapter 5

For He who prohibited the making of a graven image, would never Himself have made an image in the likeness of holy things. Nor is there at all any composite thing, and creature endowed with sensation, of the sort in heaven. But the face is a symbol of the rational soul, and the wings are the lofty ministers and energies of powers right and left; and the voice is delightsome glory in ceaseless contemplation. Let it suffice that the mystic interpretation has advanced so far. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) The Stromata, Book 5, Chapter 6

Again, Moses, not allowing altars and temples to be constructed in many places, but raising one temple of God, announced that the world was only-begotten, as Basilides says, and that God is one, as does not as yet appear to Basilides. And since the gnostic Moses does not circumscribe within space Him that cannot be circumscribed, he set up no image in the temple to be worshipped; showing that God was invisible, and incapable of being circumscribed; and somehow leading the Hebrews to the conception of God by the honour for His name in the temple. Further, the Word, prohibiting the constructing of temples and all sacrifices, intimates that the Almighty is not contained in anything, by what He says: What house will you build to Me? Says the Lord. Heaven is my throne” (Isaiah 66:1), and so on. Similarly respecting sacrifices: I do not desire the blood of bulls and the fat of lambs, and what the Holy Spirit by the prophet in the sequel forbids.

Most excellently, therefore, Euripides accords with these, when he writes:—

What house constructed by the workmen’s hands,
With folds of walls, can clothe the shape divine?

And of sacrifices he thus speaks:—

For God needs nought, if He is truly God.
These of the minstrels are the wretched myths.

For it was not from need that God made the world; that He might reap honours from men and the other gods and demons, winning a kind of revenue from creation, and from us, fumes, and from the gods and demons, their proper ministries, says Plato. Most instructively, therefore, says Paul in the Acts of the Apostles: The God that made the world, and all things in it, being the Lord of heaven and earth, dwells not in temples made with hands; neither is worshipped by men’s hands, as if He needed anything; seeing that it is He Himself that gives to all breath, and life, and all things. Acts 17:24-25 And Zeno, the founder of the Stoic sect, says in this book of the Republic, that we ought to make neither temples nor images; for that no work is worthy of the gods. And he was not afraid to write in these very words: There will be no need to build temples. For a temple is not worth much, and ought not to be regarded as holy. For nothing is worth much, and holy, which is the work of builders and mechanics. Rightly, therefore, Plato too, recognising the world as God’s temple, pointed out to the citizens a spot in the city where their idols were to be laid up. Let not, then, any one again, he says, consecrate temples to the gods. For gold and silver in other states, in the case of private individuals and in the temples, is an invidious possession; and ivory, a body which has abandoned the life, is not a sacred votive offering; and steel and brass are the instruments of wars.” – Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, book 5, chapter 11

And what? Do you not realize, noble ones (I speak as though you were here), that by fighting against good commandments, you are resisting your own salvation? You are not overturning the commandments themselves, but ruining yourselves. The Lord said, “Let your good deeds shine,” but you make your acts of indecency known to all. And if you truly want to destroy the commandments of the Lawgiver, why do you try to break “Do not commit adultery” and “Do not corrupt boys” and other commands about self-control because of your own lack of control, but you do not try to get rid of winter, which He also made? Why not try to create summer in the middle of winter?… Why don’t you try to resist all the commandments? For since it was said, “Be fruitful and multiply,” you, who resist God, should not have any sexual union at all. And since He said, “I have given you everything for food and enjoyment,” you should not enjoy anything. Also, since He said “an eye for an eye,” you shouldn’t respond to violence with violence. And when He commanded that the thief repay fourfold, you should instead add even more to the thief. And again, when He said, “You shall love the Lord,” by your logic you should not love the God of all. And when He said, “You shall not make carved or molten images,” by your logic you should go and worship (adoraretis) images. – Clement, Stromata 3.4

And the Socratic Antisthenes, paraphrasing that prophetic utterance, “To whom have ye likened me? saith the Lord,” says that “God is like no one; wherefore no one can come to the knowledge of Him from an image.” – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) The Stromata, Book 5, Chapter 13

Nay more, Tragedy, drawing away from idols, teaches to look up to heaven. Sophocles, as Hecatæus, who composed the histories in the work about Abraham and the Egyptians, says, exclaims plainly on the stage:—

“One in very truth, God is One,
Who made the heaven and the far-stretching earth, The Deep’s blue billow, and the might of winds. But of us mortals, many erring far
In heart, as solace for our woes, have raised Images of gods—of stone, or else of brass,
Or figures wrought of gold or ivory;
And sacrifices and vain festivals
To these appointing, deem ourselves devout.” – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) The Stromata, Book 5 Chapter 14

Not only then the believer, but even the heathen, is judged most righteously. For since God knew in virtue of His prescience that he would not believe, He nevertheless, in order that he might receive his own perfection gave him philosophy, but gave it him previous to faith. And He gave the sun, and the moon, and the stars to be worshipped; “which God,” the Law says, made for the nations, that they might not become altogether atheistical, and so utterly perish. But they, also in the instance of this commandment, having become devoid of sense, and addicting themselves to graven images, are judged unless they repent; some of them because, though able, they would not believe God; and others because, though willing, they did not take the necessary pains to become believers. There were also, however, those who, from the worship of the heavenly bodies, did not return to the Maker of them. For this was the sway given to the nations to rise up to God, by means of the worship of the heavenly bodies. But those who would not abide by those heavenly bodies assigned to them, but fell away from them to stocks and stones, “were counted,” it is said, “as chaff-dust and as a drop from a jar,” beyond salvation, cast away from the body. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) The Stromata, Book 6, Chapter 14

Such, then, being the case, the Greeks ought by the Law and the Prophets to learn to worship one God only, the only Sovereign; then to be taught by the apostle, “but to us an idol is nothing in the world,” since nothing among created things can be a likeness of God; and further, to be taught that none of those images which they worship can be similitudes: for the race of souls is not in form such as the Greeks fashion their idols. For souls are invisible; not only those that are rational, but those also of the other animals. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) The Stromata, Book 6 Chapter 18

For is it not the case that rightly and truly we do not circumscribe in any place that which cannot be circumscribed; nor do we shut up in temples made with hands that which contains all things? What work of builders, and stonecutters, and mechanical art can be holy? Superior to these are not they who think that the air, and the enclosing space, or rather the whole world and the universe, are meet for the excellency of God? … But how can He, to whom the things that are belong, need anything? But were God possessed of a human form, He would need, equally with man, food, and shelter, and house, and the attendant incidents. Those who are like in form and affections will require similar sustenance. And if sacred (το ἱερόν) has a twofold application, designating both God Himself and the structure raised to His honour, how shall we not with propriety call the Church holy, through knowledge, made for the honour of God, sacred (ἱερόν) to God, of great value, and not constructed by mechanical art, nor embellished by the hand of an impostor, but by the will of God fashioned into a temple? For it is not now the place, but the assemblage of the elect, that I call the Church. – Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata, Book 7, chapter 5

It were indeed ridiculous, as the philosophers themselves say, for man, the plaything of God, to make God, and for God to be the plaything of art; since what is made is similar and the same to that of which it is made, as that which is made of ivory is ivory, and that which is made of gold golden. Now the images and temples constructed by mechanics are made of inert matter; so that they too are inert, and material, and profane; and if you perfect the art, they partake of mechanical coarseness. Works of art cannot then be sacred and divine. – Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) The Stromata Book 7, Chapter 5

And since the dawn is an image of the day of birth, and from that point the light which has shone forth at first from the darkness increases, there has also dawned on those involved in darkness a day of the knowledge of truth. In correspondence with the manner of the sun’s rising, prayers are made looking towards the sunrise in the east. Whence also the most ancient temples looked towards the west, that people might be taught to turn to the east when facing the images. – Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata, Book 7, Chapter 7

Wherefore we must adopt a mode of standing and motion, and a step, and dress, and in a word, a mode of life, in all respects as worthy as possible of freemen. But men are not to wear the ring on the joint; for this is feminine; but to place it on the little finger at its root. For so the hand will be freest for work, in whatever we need it; and the signet will not very easily fall off, being guarded by the large knot of the joint. And let our seals be either a dove, or a fish, or a ship scudding before the wind, or a musical lyre, which Polycrates used, or a ship’s anchor, which Seleucus got engraved as a device; and if there be one fishing, he will remember the apostle, and the children drawn out of the water. For we are not to delineate the faces of idols, we who are prohibited to cleave to them; nor a sword, nor a bow, following as we do, peace; nor drinking-cups, being temperate. Many of the licentious have their lovers engraved, or their mistresses, as if they wished to make it impossible ever to forget their amatory indulgences, by being perpetually put in mind of their licentiousness. – Clement of Alexandria, The Paedagogus, Book 3, Chapter 11

Tertullian (155 – 220 AD):

But I pass from these remarks, for I know and I am going to show what your gods are not, by showing what they are. In reference, then, to these, I see only names of dead men of ancient times; I hear fabulous stories; I recognize sacred rites founded on mere myths. As to the actual images, I regard them as simply pieces of matter akin to the vessels and utensils in common use among us, or even undergoing in their consecration a hapless change from these useful articles at the hands of reckless art, which in the transforming process treats them with utter contempt, nay, in the very act commits sacrilege; so that it might be no slight solace to us in all our punishments, suffering as we do because of these same gods, that in their making they suffer as we do themselves. You put Christians on crosses and stakes: what image is not formed from the clay in the first instance, set on cross and stake? – Tertullian (197 AD) The Apology Chapter 12

But plain it is these objects of your worship have no sense of the injuries and disgraces of their consecrating, as they are equally unconscious of the honours paid to them. O impious words! O blasphemous reproaches! Gnash your teeth upon us—foam with maddened rage against us—ye are the persons, no doubt, who censured a certain Seneca speaking of your superstition at much greater length and far more sharply! in a word, if we refuse our homage to statues and frigid images, the very counterpart of their dead originals, with which hawks, and mice, and spiders are so well acquainted, does it not merit praise instead of penalty, that we have rejected what we have come to see is error? We cannot surely be made out to injure those who we are certain are nonentities. What does not exist, is in its nonexistence secure from suffering. – Tertullian (197 AD) The Apology Chapter 12

For you are under the delusion, like some others, that our god is an ass’s head. Cornelius Tacitus first put this notion into people’s minds. In the fifth book of his histories, beginning the (narrative of the) Jewish war with an account of the origin of the nation; and theorizing at his pleasure about the origin, as well as the name and the religion of the Jews, he states that having been delivered, or rather, in his opinion, expelled from Egypt, in crossing the vast plains of Arabia, where water is so scanty, they were in extremity from thirst; but taking the guidance of the wild asses, which it was thought might be seeking water after feeding, they discovered a fountain, and thereupon in their gratitude they consecrated a head of this species of animal. And so from that point, I think, it was presumed that we too, as relatives of the Jewish religion, are initiated into the same image. But indeed the same Cornelius Tacitus — that most loquacious of liars — relates in the same history that Pompey, when he had captured Jerusalem and for that reason had entered the temple to inspect the secrets of the Jewish religion, found no image there. Yet surely if worship was rendered to any visible object, the very place for its exhibition would be the shrine, especially because it did not fear outside observers, however vain the cult might be. For it was permitted only to the priests to enter, and the view of the others was forbidden by an outstretched veil. You will not, however, deny that all beasts of burden, and not parts of them, but the animals entire, are with their goddess Epona objects of worship with you. It is this, perhaps, which displeases you in us, that while your worship here is universal, we do homage only to the ass. Then, if any of you think we render superstitious adoration to the cross, in that adoration he is sharer with us. If you offer homage to a piece of wood at all, it matters little what it is like when the substance is the same: it is of no consequence the form, if you have the very body of the god. And yet how far does the Athenian Pallas differ from the stock of the cross, or the Pharian Ceres as she is put up uncarved to sale, a mere rough stake and piece of shapeless wood? Every stake fixed in an upright position is a portion of the cross; we render our adoration, if you will have it so, to a god entire and complete. We have shown before that your deities are derived from shapes modelled from the cross. But you also worship victories, for in your trophies the cross is the heart of the trophy. The camp religion of the Romans is all through a worship of the standards, a setting the standards above all gods. Well, as those images decking out the standards are ornaments of crosses. All those hangings of your standards and banners are robes of crosses. I praise your zeal: you would not consecrate crosses unclothed and unadorned. Others, again, certainly with more information and greater verisimilitude, believe that the sun is our god. We shall be counted Persians perhaps, though we do not worship the orb of day painted on a piece of linen cloth, having himself everywhere in his own disk. The idea no doubt has originated from our being known to turn to the east in prayer. But you, many of you, also under pretence sometimes of worshipping the heavenly bodies, move your lips in the direction of the sunrise. In the same way, if we devote Sun-day to rejoicing, from a far different reason than Sun-worship, we have some resemblance to those of you who devote the day of Saturn to ease and luxury, though they too go far away from Jewish ways, of which indeed they are ignorant. – Tertullian (197 AD), The Apology, Chapter 16

• Tertullian is not acknowledging that Christians bow to the cross, anymore than he’s acknowledging they worship the head of an ass or the sun in the sky. Rather, when he appears to concede their accusations, he’s doing this in order to show the hypocrisy of those idolatrous accusers, who worship Roman standards and the wooden support beams hidden inside idols. He repeatedly maintains that Christians do not worship lifeless images.

Search, then, and see if that divinity of Christ be true. If it be of such a nature that the acceptance of it transforms a man, and makes him truly good, there is implied in that the duty of renouncing what is opposed to it as false; especially and on every ground that which, hiding itself under the names and images of dead, the labours to convince men of its divinity by certain signs, and miracles, and oracles. – Tertullian (197 AD) The Apology Chapter 21

So, too, by an influence equally obscure, demons and angels breathe into the soul, and rouse up its corruptions with furious passions and vile excesses; or with cruel lusts accompanied by various errors, of which the worst is that by which these deities are commended to the favour of deceived and deluded human beings, that they may get their proper food of flesh-fumes and blood when that is offered up to idol-images. What is daintier food to the spirit of evil, than turning men’s minds away from the true God by the illusions of a false divination? -Tertullian (197 AD) The Apology Chapter 22

Though Numa set agoing an eagerness after superstitious observances, yet religion among the Romans was not yet a matter of images or temples. It was frugal in its ways, its rites were simple, and there were no capitols struggling to the heavens; but the altars were offhand ones of turf, and the sacred vessels were yet of Samian earthen-ware, and from these the odours rose, and no likeness of God was to be seen. For at that time the skill of the Greeks and Tuscans in image-making had not yet overrun the city with the products of their art. The Romans, therefore, were not distinguished for their devotion to the gods before they attained to greatness; and so their greatness was not the result of their religion. Indeed, how could religion make a people great who have owed their greatness to their irreligion? – Tertullian (197 AD) The Apology Chapter 25

When we are called therefore to sacrifice, we resolutely refuse, relying on the knowledge we possess, by which we are well assured of the real objects to whom these services are offered, under profaning of images and the deification of human names. Some, indeed, think it a piece of insanity that, when it is in our power to offer sacrifice at once, and go away unharmed, holding as ever our convictions, we prefer an obstinate persistence in our confession to our safety. You advise us, forsooth, to take unjust advantage of you; but we know whence such suggestions come, who is at the bottom of it all, and how every effort is made, now by cunning suasion, and now by merciless persecution, to overthrow our constancy. No other than that spirit, half devil and half angel, who, hating us because of his own separation from God, and stirred with envy for the favour God has shown us, turns your minds against us by an occult influence, moulding and instigating them to all that perversity in judgment, and that unrighteous cruelty, which we have mentioned at the beginning of our work, when entering on this discussion. For, though the whole power of demons and kindred spirits is subject to us, yet still, as ill-disposed slaves sometimes conjoin contumacy with fear, and delight to injure those of whom they at the same time stand in awe, so is it here. For fear also inspires hatred. Besides, in their desperate condition, as already under condemnation, it gives them some comfort, while punishment delays, to have the usufruct of their malignant dispositions. And yet, when hands are laid on them, they are subdued at once, and submit to their lot; and those whom at a distance they oppose, in close quarters they supplicate for mercy. So when, like insurrectionary workhouses, or prisons, or mines, or any such penal slaveries, they break forth against us their masters, they know all the while that they are not a match for us, and just on that account, indeed, rush the more recklessly to destruction. We resist them, unwillingly, as though they were equals, and contend against them by persevering in that which they assail; and our triumph over them is never more complete than when we are condemned for resolute adherence to our faith. – Tertullian (197 AD) The Apology Chapter 27

Let it be made clear, then, first of all, if those to whom sacrifice is offered are really able to protect either emperor or anybody else, and so adjudge us guilty of treason, if angels and demons, spirits of most wicked nature, do any good, if the lost save, if the condemned give liberty, if the dead (I refer to what you know well enough) defend the living. For surely the first thing they would look to would be the protection of their statues, and images, and temples, which rather owe their safety, I think, to the watch kept by Cæsar’s guards. – Tertullian (197 AD) The Apology Chapter 29

You, therefore, are the sources of trouble in human affairs; on you lies the blame of public adversities, since you are ever attracting them—you by whom God is despised and images are worshipped. -Tertullian (197 AD) The Apology Chapter 41

And you cast statues in honour of persons such as these, and you put inscriptions upon images, and cut out epitaphs on tombs, that their names may never perish. In so far you can by your monuments, you yourselves afford a sort of resurrection to the dead. – Tertullian (197 AD) The Apology Chapter 50

Idol in ancient times there was none. Before the artificers of this monstrosity had bubbled into being, temples stood solitary and shrines empty, just as to the present day in some places traces of the ancient practice remain permanently. Yet idolatry used to be practised, not under that name, but in that function; for even at this day it can be practised outside a temple, and without an idol. But when the devil introduced into the world artificers of statues and of images, and of every kind of likenesses, that former rude business of human disaster attained from idols both a name and a development. Thenceforward every art which in any way produces an idol instantly became a fount of idolatry. For it makes no difference whether a moulder cast, or a carver grave, or an embroiderer weave the idol; because neither is it a question of material, whether an idol be formed of gypsum, or of colors, or of stone, or of bronze, or of silver, or of thread. For since even without an idol idolatry is committed, when the idol is there it makes no difference of what kind it be, of what material, or what shape; lest any should think that only to be held an idol which is consecrated in human shape. To establish this point, the interpretation of the word is requisite. Eidos, in Greek, signifies form; eidolon, derived diminutively from that, by an equivalent process in our language, makes formling. Every form or formling, therefore, claims to be called an idol. Hence idolatry is “all attendance and service about every idol.” Hence also, every artificer of an idol is guilty of one and the same crime, unless, the People which consecrated for itself the likeness of a calf, and not of a man, fell short of incurring the guilt of idolatry. – Tertullian (197 AD) On Idolatry Chapter 3

God prohibits an idol as much to be made as to be worshipped. In so far as the making what may be worshipped is the prior act, so far is the prohibition to make (if the worship is unlawful) the prior prohibition. For this cause—the eradicating, namely, of the material of idolatry—the divine law proclaims, “Thou shalt make no idol;” and by conjoining, “Nor a similitude of the things which are in the heaven, and which are in the earth, and which are in the sea,” has interdicted the servants of God from acts of that kind all the universe over. Enoch had preceded, predicting that “the demons, and the spirits of the angelic apostates, would turn into idolatry all the elements, all the garniture of the universe, all things contained in the heaven, in the sea, in the earth, that they might be consecrated as God, in opposition to God.” All things, therefore, does human error worship, except the Founder of all Himself. The images of those things are idols; the consecration of the images is idolatry. Whatever guilt idolatry incurs, must necessarily be imputed to every artificer of every idol. In short, the same Enoch fore-condemns in general menace both idol-worshippers and idol-makers together. And again: “I swear to you, sinners, that against the day of perdition of blood repentance is being prepared. Ye who serve stones, and ye who make images of gold, and silver, and wood, and stones and clay, and serve phantoms, and demons, and spirits in fanes, and all errors not according to knowledge, shall find no help from them.” But Isaiah says, “Ye are witnesses whether there is a God except Me.” “And they who mould and carve out at that time were not: all vain! who do that which liketh them, which shall not profit them!” And that whole ensuing discourse sets a ban as well on the artificers as the worshippers: the close of which is, “Learn that their heart is ashes and earth, and that none can free his own soul.” In which sentence David equally includes the makers too. “Such,” says he, “let them become who make them.” And why should I, a man of limited memory, suggest anything further? Why recall anything more from the Scriptures? As if either the voice of the Holy Spirit were not sufficient; or else any further deliberation were needful, whether the Lord cursed and condemned by priority the artificers of those things, of which He curses and condemns the worshippers! – Tertullian (197 AD) On Idolatry Chapter 4

Therefore, as to what relates to the honours due to kings or emperors, we have a prescript sufficient, that it behoves us to be in all obedience, according to the apostle’s precept, “subject to magistrates, and princes, and powers;” but within the limits of discipline, so long as we keep ourselves separate from idolatry. For it is for this reason, too, that that example of the three brethren has forerun us, who, in other respects obedient toward king Nebuchadnezzar rejected with all constancy the honour to his image, proving that whatever is extolled beyond the measure of human honour, unto the resemblance of divine sublimity, is idolatry. – Tertullian (197 AD) On Idolatry Chapter 15

But the more ambitious preliminary display of the circus games to which the name procession specially belongs, is in itself the proof to whom the whole thing appertains, in the many images the long line of statues, the chariots of all sorts, the thrones, the crowns, the dresses. What high religious rites besides, what sacrifices precede, come between, and follow…. Though there be few images to grace it, there is idolatry in one; though there be no more than a single sacred car, it is a chariot of Jupiter: anything of idolatry whatever, whether meanly arrayed or modestly rich and gorgeous, taints it in its origin. – Tertullian (197 AD) The Shows, Chapter 7

You will hate, O Christian, the things whose authors must be the objects of your utter detestation. So we would now make a remark about the arts of the theatre, about the things also whose authors in the names we execrate. We know that the names of the dead are nothing, as are their images; but we know well enough, too, who, when images are set up, under these names carry on their wicked work, and exult in the homage rendered to them, and pretend to be divine—none other than spirits accursed, than devils. – Tertullian (197 AD) The Shows Chapter 10

Offerings to propitiate the dead then were regarded as belonging to the class of funeral sacrifices; and these are idolatry: for idolatry, in fact, is a sort of homage to the departed; the one as well as the other is a service to dead men. Moreover, demons have (their) abode in the images of the dead. – Tertullian (197 AD) The Shows Chapter 12

We have, I think, faithfully carried out our plan of showing in how many different ways the sin of idolatry clings to the shows, in respect of their origins, their titles, their equipments, their places of celebration, their arts; and we may hold it as a thing beyond all doubt, that for us who have twice renounced all idols, they are utterly unsuitable. “Not that an idol is anything,” as the apostle says, but that the homage they render is to demons, who are the real occupants of these consecrated images, whether of dead men or (as they think) of gods. On this account, therefore, because they have a common source—for their dead and their deities are one—we abstain from both idolatries. Nor do we dislike the temples less than the monuments: we have nothing to do with either altar, we adore neither image; we do not offer sacrifices to the gods, and we make no funeral oblations to the departed; nay, we do not partake of what is offered either in the one case or the other, for we cannot partake of God’s feast and the feast of devils. If, then, we keep throat and belly free from such defilements, how much more do we withhold our nobler parts, our ears and eyes, from the idolatrous and funereal enjoyments, which are not passed through the body, but are digested in the very spirit and soul, whose purity, much more than that of our bodily organs, God has a right to claim from us. – Tertullian (197 AD) The Shows Chapter 13

And in regard to the wearing of masks, I ask is that according to the mind of God, who forbids the making of every likeness, and especially then the likeness of man who is His own image? The Author of truth hates all the false; He regards as adultery all that is unreal. Condemning, therefore, as He does hypocrisy in every form, He never will approve any putting on of voice, or sex, or age; He never will approve pretended loves, and wraths, and groans, and tears. Then, too, as in His law it is declared that the man is cursed who attires himself in female garments (Deuteronomy xxii), what must be His judgment of the pantomime, who is even brought up to play the woman! – Tertullian (197 AD) The Shows Chapter 23

So, when you allege that the ornaments of the heathen deities are found no less with God, with the object of claiming among these for general use the head-crown, you already lay it down for yourself, that we must not have among us, as a thing whose use we are to share with others, what is not to be found in the service of God. Well, what is so unworthy of God indeed as that which is worthy of an idol? But what is so worthy of an idol as that which is also worthy of a dead man? For it is the privilege of the dead also to be thus crowned, as they too straightway become idols, both by their dress and the service of deification, which (deification) is with us a second idolatry. Wanting, then, the sense, it will be theirs to use the thing for which the sense is wanting, just as if in full possession of the sense they wished to abuse it. When there ceases to be any reality in the use, there is no distinction between using and abusing. Who can abuse a thing, when the precipient nature with which he wishes to carry out his purpose is not his to use it? The apostle, moreover, forbids us to abuse, while he would more naturally have taught us not to use, unless on the ground that, where there is no sense for things, there is no wrong use of them. But the whole affair is meaningless, and is, in fact, a dead work so far as concerns the idols; though, without doubt, a living one as respects the demons to whom the religious rite belongs. “The idols of the heathen,” says David, “are silver and gold.” “They have eyes, and see not; a nose, and smell not; hands, and they will not handle.” By means of these organs, indeed, we are to enjoy flowers; but if he declares that those who make idols will be like them, they already are so who use anything after the style of idol adornings. “To the pure all things are pure: so, likewise, all things to the impure are impure;” but nothing is more impure than idols. The substances are themselves as creatures of God without impurity, and in this their native state are free to the use of all; but the ministries to which in their use they are devoted, makes all the difference; for I, too, kill a cock for myself, just as Socrates did for Æsculapius; and if the smell of some place or other offends me, I burn the Arabian product myself, but not with the same ceremony, nor in the same dress, nor with the same pomp, with which it is done to idols. If the creature is defiled by a mere word, as the apostle teaches, “But if any one say, This is offered in sacrifice to idols, you must not touch it,” much more when it is polluted by the dress, and rites, and pomp of what is offered to the gods. Thus the crown also is made out to be an offering to idols; for with this ceremony, and dress, and pomp, it is presented in sacrifice to idols, its originators, to whom its use is specially given over, and chiefly on this account, that what has no place among the things of God may not be admitted into use with us as with others. Wherefore the apostle exclaims, “Flee idolatry:” certainly idolatry whole and entire he means. Reflect on what a thicket it is, and how many thorns lie hid in it. Nothing must be given to an idol, and so nothing must be taken from one. If it is inconsistent with faith to recline in an idol temple, what is it to appear in an idol dress? What communion have Christ and Belial? Therefore flee from it; for he enjoins us to keep at a distance from idolatry—to have no close dealings with it of any kind. Even an earthly serpent sucks in men at some distance with its breath. Going still further, John says, “My little children, keep yourselves from idols,”—not now from idolatry, as if from the service of it, but from idols—that is, from any resemblance to them: for it is an unworthy thing that you, the image of the living God, should become the likeness of an idol and a dead man. Thus far we assert, that this attire belongs to idols, both from the history of its origin, and from its use by false religion; on this ground, besides, that while it is not mentioned as connected with the worship of God, it is more and more given over to those in whose antiquities, as well as festivals and services, it is found. In a word, the very doors, the very victims and altars, the very servants and priests, are crowned. You have, in Claudius, the crowns of all the various colleges of priests. We have added also that distinction between things altogether different from each other—things, namely, agreeable, and things contrary to reason—in answer to those who, because there happens to be the use of some things in common, maintain the right of participation in all things. With reference to this part of the subject, therefore, it now remains that the special grounds for wearing crowns should be examined, that while we show these to be foreign, nay, even opposed to our Christian discipline, we may demonstrate that none of them have any plea of reason to support it, on the basis of which this article of dress might be vindicated as one in whose use we can participate, as even some others may whose instances are cast up to us. – Tertullian (197 AD) The Chaplet Chapter 10

In this matter we are (said to be) guilty not merely of forsaking the religion of the community, but of introducing a monstrous superstition; for some among you have dreamed that our god is an ass’s head,—an absurdity which Cornelius Tacitus first suggested. In the fourth book of his histories, where he is treating of the Jewish war, he begins his description with the origin of that nation, and gives his own views respecting both the origin and the name of their religion. He relates that the Jews, in their migration in the desert, when suffering for want of water, escaped by following for guides some wild asses, which they supposed to be going in quest of water after pasture, and that on this account the image of one of these animals was worshipped by the Jews. From this, I suppose, it was presumed that we, too, from our close connection with the Jewish religion, have ours consecrated under the same emblematic form. The same Cornelius Tacitus, however,—who, to say the truth, is most loquacious in falsehood—forgetting his later statement, relates how Pompey the Great, after conquering the Jews and capturing Jerusalem, entered the temple, but found nothing in the shape of an image, though he examined the place carefully. – Tertullian (197 AD) The Chaplet Chapter 11

Since, then, in the production of your gods, you worship the cross which originates them, here will be the original kernel and grain, from which are propagated the wooden materials of your idolatrous images. Examples are not far to seek. Your victories you celebrate with religious ceremony as deities; and they are the more august in proportion to the joy they bring you. The frames on which you hang up your trophies must be crosses: these are, as it were, the very core of your pageants. Thus, in your victories, the religion of your camp makes even crosses objects of worship; your standards it adores, your standards are the sanction of its oaths; your standards it prefers before Jupiter himself. But all that parade of images, and that display of pure gold, are (as so many) necklaces of the crosses. In like manner also, in the banners and ensigns, which your soldiers guard with no less sacred care, you have the streamers (and) vestments of your crosses. You are ashamed, I suppose, to worship unadorned and simple crosses. – Tertullian (197 AD) The Chaplet Chapter 12

Our first step in this contumacious conduct concerns that which is ranked by you immediately after the worship due to God, that is, the worship due to the majesty of the Cæsars, in respect of which we are charged with being irreligious towards them, since we neither propitiate their images nor swear by their genius. – Tertullian (197 AD) Ad Nationes Book 1 Chapter 17

For, withal, according to the memorial records of the divine Scriptures, the people of the Jews—that is, the more ancient—quite forsook God, and did degrading service to idols, and, abandoning the Divinity, was surrendered to images; while “the people” said to Aaron, “Make us gods to go before us.” And when the gold out of the necklaces of the women and the rings of the men had been wholly smelted by fire, and there had come forth a calf-like head, to this figment Israel with one consent (abandoning God) gave honour, saying, “These are the gods who brought us from the land of Egypt.” For thus, in the later times in which kings were governing them, did they again, in conjunction with Jeroboam, worship golden kine, and groves, and enslave themselves to Baal. Whence is proved that they have ever been depicted, out of the volume of the divine Scriptures, as guilty of the crime of idolatry; whereas our “less”—that is, posterior—people, quitting the idols which formerly it used slavishly to serve, has been converted to the same God from whom Israel, as we have above related, had departed. For thus has the “less”—that is, posterior—people overcome the “greater people,” while it attains the grace of divine favour, from which Israel has been divorced. – Tertullian (197 AD) An Answer to the Jews Chapter 1

Now, it is no difficult matter to prove the rapture of Peter. For how could he have known Moses and Elias, except (by being) in the Spirit? People could not have had their images, or statues, or likenesses; for that the law forbade. How, if it were not that he had seen them in the Spirit? – Tertullian (197 AD) Against Marcion Book 4 Chapter 22

He has, from His abhorrence of idols, framed a series of curses too: “Cursed be the man who maketh a graven or a molten image, an abomination, the work of the hands of the craftsman, and putteth it in a secret place.” But in Leviticus He says: “Go not ye after idols, nor make to yourselves molten gods: I am the Lord your God.” And in other passages: “The children of Israel are my household servants; these are they whom I led forth from the land of Egypt: I am the Lord your God. Ye shall not make you idols fashioned by the hand, neither rear you up a graven image. Nor shall ye set up a remarkable stone in your land (to worship it): I am the Lord your God.” These words indeed were first spoken by the Lord by the lips of Moses, being applicable certainly to whomsoever the Lord God of Israel may lead forth in like manner from the Egypt of a most superstitious world, and from the abode of human slavery. But from the mouth of every prophet in succession, sound forth also utterances of the same God, augmenting the same law of His by a renewal of the same commands, and in the first place announcing no other duty in so special a manner as the being on guard against all making and worshipping of idols; as when by the mouth of David He says: “The gods of the nations are silver and gold: they have eyes, and see not; they have ears, and hear not; they have a nose, and smell not; a mouth, and they speak not; hands, and they handle not; feet and they walk not. Like to them shall be they who make them, and trust in them.” – Tertullian (197 AD) Antidote for the Scorpion’s Sting Chapter 2

For our God whom we worship is able to deliver us from the furnace of fire and from your hands; and then it will be made plain to you that we shall neither serve your idol, nor worship your golden image which you have set up. – Tertullian (197 AD) Antidote for the Scorpion’s Sting, Chapter 8

Again, for the custom which some have of sitting when prayer is ended, I perceive no reason, except that which children give. For what if that Hermas, whose writing is generally inscribed with the title The Shepherd, had, after finishing his prayer, not sat down on his bed, but done some other thing: should we maintain that also as a matter for observance? Of course not. Why, even as it is the sentence, “When I had prayed, and had sat down on my bed,” is simply put with a view to the order of the narration, not as a model of discipline. Else we shall have to pray nowhere except where there is a bed! Nay, whoever sits in a chair or on a bench, will act contrary to that writing. Further: inasmuch as the nations do the like, in sitting down after adoring their petty images; even on this account the practice deserves to be censured in us, because it is observed in the worship of idols. To this is further added the charge of irreverence,—intelligible even to the nations themselves, if they had any sense. If, on the one hand, it is irreverent to sit under the eye, and over against the eye, of him whom you most of all revere and venerate; how much more, on the other hand, is that deed most irreligious under the eye of the living God, while the angel of prayer is still standing by unless we are upbraiding God that prayer has wearied us! – Tertullian (197 AD) On Prayer Chapter 16

[Hermogenes the heretic] despises God’s law in his painting, and he maintains repeated marriages. Although he purports to follow the law of God in defense of his lust, he despises it in respect of his art. – Tertullian (200 AD), Against Hermogenes, chapter 1

Therefore, when forbidding the making of any likeness of things in heaven, on earth, and in the waters, He also reveals the reasons—namely, restraining the substance of idolatry. For He adds, “You shall not bow down to them, nor serve them.” Now, the form of the bronze serpent made afterward by Moses at the Lord’s command did not pertain to the purpose of idolatry, but for healing those who were afflicted by serpents. And I say nothing about what was figured by the cure. So also the golden cherubim and seraphim, formed on the ark as a simple ornament suited for the cover, having reasons far different from the condition of idolatry, on account of which the making of a likeness is forbidden, do not seem to contradict the law forbidding likenesses—since they are not found in that state of likeness for which making a likeness is forbidden. – Tertullian (200 AD) Against Marcion, Book 2, chapter 22

Mark Minucius Felix (210 AD):

Cæcilius, observing an image of Serapis, raised his hand to his mouth, as is the custom of the superstitious common people, and pressed a kiss on it with his lips. Then Octavius said: “It is not the part of a good man, my brother Marcus, so to desert a man who abides by your side at home and abroad, in this blindness of vulgar ignorance, as that you should suffer him in such broad daylight as this to give himself up to stones, however they may be carved into images, anointed and crowned; since you know that the disgrace of this his error redounds in no less degree to your discredit than to his own.” – Mark Minucius Felix (210 AD) The Octavius Chapter 3

“I purposely pass over many things, for those that I have mentioned are already too many; and that all these, or the greater part of them, are true, the obscurity of their vile religion declares. For why do they endeavour with such pains to conceal and to cloak whatever they worship, since honourable things always rejoice in publicity, while crimes are kept secret? Why have they no altars, no temples, no acknowledged images? Why do they never speak openly, never congregate freely, unless for the reason that what they adore and conceal is either worthy of punishment, or something to be ashamed of?” – Mark Minucius Felix (210 AD) The Octavius Chapter 10

Whence it is manifest, that those were men whom we both read of as having been born, and know to have died. Who therefore doubts that the common people pray to and publicly worship the consecrated images of these men; in that the belief and mind of the ignorant is deceived by the perfection of art, is blinded by the glitter of gold, is dimmed with the shining of silver and the whiteness of ivory? But if any one were to present to his mind with what instruments and with what machinery every image is formed, he would blush that he had feared matter, treated after his fancy by the artificer to make a god. For a god of wood, a portion perhaps of a pile, or of an unlucky log, is hung up, is cut, is hewn, is planed; and a god of brass or of silver, often from an impure vessel, as was done by the Egyptian king, is fused, is beaten with hammers and forged on anvils; and the god of stone is cut, is sculptured, and is polished by some abandoned man, nor feels the injury done to him in his nativity, any more than afterwards it feels the worship flowing from your veneration; unless perhaps the stone, or the wood, or the silver is not yet a god. When, therefore, does the god begin his existence? Lo, it is melted, it is wrought, it is sculptured — it is not yet a god; lo, it is soldered, it is built together — it is set up, and even yet it is not a god; lo, it is adorned, it is consecrated, it is prayed to — then at length it is a god, when man has chosen it to be so, and for the purpose has dedicated it. – Mark Minucius Felix (210 AD), The Octavius, Chapter 23

“These impure spirits, therefore—the demons—as is shown by the Magi, by the philosophers, and by Plato, consecrated under statues and images, lurk there, and by their afflatus attain the authority as of a present deity; while in the meantime they are breathed into the prophets, while they dwell in the shrines, while sometimes they animate the fibres of the entrails, control the flights of birds, direct the lots, are the cause of oracles involved in many falsehoods. For they are both deceived, and they deceive; inasmuch as they are both ignorant of the simple truth, and for their own ruin they confess not that which they know. Thus they weigh men downwards from heaven, and call them away from the true God to material things: they disturb the life, render all men unquiet; creeping also secretly into human bodies, with subtlety, as being spirits, they feign diseases, alarm the minds, wrench about the limbs; that they may constrain men to worship them, being gorged with the fumes of altars or the sacrifices of cattle, that, by remitting what they had bound, they may seem to have cured it.” – Mark Minucius Felix (210 AD) The Octavius Chapter 27

Thus they invoke their deity, they supplicate their images, they implore their Genius, that is, their demon; and it is safer to swear falsely by the genius of Jupiter than by that of a king. Crosses, moreover, we neither worship nor wish for. You, indeed, who consecrate gods of wood, adore wooden crosses perhaps as parts of your gods. For your very standards, as well as your banners; and flags of your camp, what else are they but crosses gilded and adorned? – Mark Minucius Felix (210 AD) The Octavius Chapter 29

But do you think that we conceal what we worship, if we have not temples and altars? And yet what image of God shall I make, since, if you think rightly, man himself is the image of God? What temple shall I build to Him, when this whole world fashioned by His work cannot receive Him? And when I, a man, dwell far and wide, shall I shut up the might of so great majesty within one little building? Were it not better that He should be dedicated in our mind, consecrated in our inmost heart? Shall I offer victims and sacrifices to the Lord, such as He has produced for my use, that I should throw back to Him His own gift? It is ungrateful when the victim fit for sacrifice is a good disposition, and a pure mind, and a sincere judgment. Therefore he who cultivates innocence supplicates God; he who cultivates justice makes offerings to God; he who abstains from fraudulent practices propitiates God; he who snatches man from danger slaughters the most acceptable victim. These are our sacrifices, these are our rites of God’s worship; thus, among us, he who is most just is he who is most religious. But certainly the God whom we worship we neither show nor see. Verily for this reason we believe Him to be God, that we can be conscious of Him, but cannot see Him; for in His works, and in all the movements of the world, we behold His power ever present when He thunders, lightens, darts His bolts, or when He makes all bright again. Nor should you wonder if you do not see God. By the wind and by the blasts of the storm all things are driven on and shaken, are agitated, and yet neither wind nor tempest comes under our eyesight. Thus we cannot look upon the sun, which is the cause of seeing to all creatures: the pupil of the eye is with drawn from his rays, the gaze of the beholder is dimmed; and if you look too long, all power of sight is extinguished. What! can you sustain the Architect of the sun Himself, the very source of light, when you turn yourself away from His lightnings, and hide yourself from His thunderbolts? Do you wish to see God with your carnal eyes, when you are neither able to behold nor to grasp your own soul itself, by which you are enlivened and speak? – Mark Minucius Felix (210 AD) The Octavius Chapter 32

Hippolytus of Rome (225 AD):

14.4. While they were drunk, the king, being puffed up, commanded that the golden and silver vessels, which Nebuchadnezzar his father had brought out from the Temple which was in Jerusalem, to be brought forth, that the magistrate and his mistresses may drink from them. Those vessels, which were dedicated to God for his glory and honor by other kings, they took with defiled hands, and made a drink offering in them and praised the lifeless and motionless idols. 14.5. Accordingly after this happened, fingers of a man’s hand came forth, and they wrote before the lamp upon the plaster of the wall of the house of the king

15.1. And so, after sufficient time had passed and the eighteenth year had come, the king, having remembered his dream, made a golden image, which was sixty cubits high and its breadth was six cubits. 15.2. For when the blessed Daniel, when he interpreted the same dream6 , answered the king saying, “You are the head of the golden image,” in this word king Nebuchadnezzar, having been puffed up2 and having been lifted up in heart, made the image as an anti-type of the dream, so that he might be worshiped as God by all. 15.3. And so having furnished it in greatness he set it up in the plain of Deira in the country of Babylon. 15.4. And having sent out a command he summoned together the governors, captains and rulers and all of those in authority to come to the consecration of the image, which Nebuchadnezzar the king set up. 15.5. And so then, while all the men were coming together for the event and while the musical instruments rang out together, at that moment the peoples, tribes, and tongues, fell down and worshipped the image, some of them only because they feared the king, but all became idolaters, and they heeded the word which was prescribed by the king.

18.2. Daniel, who was standing a far way off and keeping silent, taught these three to be courageous, while smiling at them, he himself even rejoicing at their witness, while observing the three boys who were about to be crowned against the devil. They were not deluded by musical skill nor enslaved by the pleasure of the instruments, nor carried away by the deceit of the Babylonians, nor subdued by the decree of the king, nor did they bend their knees before the golden image, which was wrought with a hammer.

19.2. For these, having seen all men worshiping the image and heeding the prescription of the king, settled their minds to speak. This is not idly written, brothers, this is similarly fulfilled in us now.

19.4. We the faithful stand fast unto death, lest we disgrace our teacher, Moses, or lest we permit our family to be ridiculed. Let us, as the three boys, conquer all the power of the Babylonians. God will deliver us from the hand of the king, as he rescued our forefathers from the hand of Pharaoh.

24.3. For they set at naught the first matter of the king, showing that the idol which was worshiped by him was not worthy of any account. 24.4. Secondly, they taught the king that it is necessary to fear and worship a certain king, saying, “There is a God whom we serve, he is able to deliver us from the burning furnace of fire.”

26.1. But why was the king not sorely pricked, having actually seen Daniel, who was a Jew, and why did he not say to him, “Why do you not worship the image?” He no doubt would have said to the king, “Because I do not worship works made with hands, but the living God who made heaven and earth and has lordship over all flesh.”

27.10. And at that time Nebuchadnezzar made only one image, but now the deceiver devises greater things in the world, so that through the many spectacles he may delude all men, some being carried about in one direction or another, some worshiping golden idols, others silver, others bronze, some that which is composed from ivory, many revering clay and stone. They all, abandoning the heavenly God, submit to empty and lifeless and useless idols, not wishing to look up to the height of heaven, nor wishing to apprehend the beauty of heaven, so that they, who do not recognize the God of this heaven, are not able to be saved. 27.11. These things are the handiwork of the devil. He worked not only long ago in Babylon, but also now he does the same things and endeavors more reckless things against the the slaves of God. – Hippolytus, Commentary on Daniel, book 2

“And they have an image of Simon (fashioned) into the figure of Jupiter, and (an image) of Helen in the form of Minerva; and they pay adoration to these.” But they call the one Lord and the other Lady. And if any one amongst them, on seeing the images of either Simon or Helen, would call them by name, he is cast off, as being ignorant of the mysteries. – Hippolytus (225 AD) The Refutation of All Heresies, Book 6, Chapter 15

Certain, likewise, of these (heretics) brand their own disciples in the back parts of the lobe of the right ear. And they make counterfeit images of Christ, alleging that these were in existence at the time during which our Lord was on earth, and that they were fashioned) by Pilate. – Hippolytus (225 AD) The Refutation of All Heresies, Book 7, Chapter 20

The Essenes have, however, in the lapse of time, undergone divisions, and they do not preserve their system of training after a similar manner, inasmuch as they have been split up into four parties. For some of them discipline themselves above the requisite rules of the order, so that even they would not handle a current coin of the country, saying that they ought not either to carry, or behold, or fashion an image: wherefore no one of those goes into a city, lest (by so doing) he should enter through a gate at which statues are erected, regarding it a violation of law to pass beneath images. – Hippolytus (225 AD) The Refutation of All Heresies, Book 9, Chapter 21

If a man is a sculptor or painter, he must be charged not to make idols; if he does not desist he must be rejected. – Hippolytus, Apostolic Tradition, chapter 16

27.10. And at that time Nebuchadnezzar made only one image, but now the deceiver devises greater things in the world, so that through the many spectacles he may delude all men, some being carried about in one direction or another, some worshiping (σέβοντας) golden idols, others silver, others bronze, some that which is composed from ivory, many revering clay and stone. They all, abandoning the heavenly God, submit (ὑποταγή) to empty and lifeless and useless idols, not wishing to look up to the height of heaven, nor wishing to apprehend the beauty of heaven, so that they, who do not recognize the God of this heaven, are not able to be saved.

27.11. These things are the handiwork of the devil. He worked not only long ago in Babylon, but also now he does the same things and endeavors more reckless things against the the slaves of God. Having prepared the furnace of fire beforehand, so that through it he might frighten men, who do not see the eternal punishment through fire which is prepared for the devil by God – Hippolytus, Commentary on Daniel, book 2 [Die Griechischen Christlichen Schriftsteller, Hippolytus Werke I. Commentarius in Danielem, Aufl. 1897: Georg Nathanel Bonwetsch/Hans Achelis; 2. Aufl. 2002: s. GCS NF 7)]

Origen of Alexandria (235 AD):

After this he compares the one who teaches to a person with an eye disease, and those who are learning to people suffering from eye disease; and he says that such a person blames those who see clearly, as though they were blind. Who then, we might say, are the ones among us who do not see? Is it not those who, from the greatness of the things in the world and the beauty of created works, are unable to lift up their eyes and perceive that one ought to worship, admire, and revere only the one who made these things—and that none of the things constructed by humans and adopted for the honor of gods should properly be revered, whether apart from the Creator God or even along with Him? – Origen, Against Celsus, Book 3, Chapter 77

And yet there are throughout the whole world—throughout all Greece, and all foreign countries—countless individuals who have abandoned the laws of their country, and those whom they had believed to be gods, and have yielded themselves up to the obedience of the law of Moses, and to the discipleship and worship of Christ; and have done this, not without exciting against themselves the intense hatred of the worshippers of images, so as frequently to be exposed to cruel tortures from the latter, and sometimes even to be put to death. And yet they embrace, and with all affection preserve, the words and teaching of Christ. – Origen (235 AD), On First Principles, Book 4, Chapter 1

If, therefore, the one who says, ‘You shall not make for yourself an idol or any likeness’ and what follows, views ‘You shall not bow down to them’ as different from ‘nor shall you serve them,’ he says this: that perhaps the one disposed toward the idols may serve them, while the one who is not inclined but acts out of fear—what he calls ‘compliance’—pretends to bow down to them in order to appear pious like the many. He does not serve them, but he bows to the idols. And I would say that those who, under the pressure of the court, renounce Christianity or before the court do not serve the idols but bow down to them, take the name of the Lord their God in vain by directing it toward dead matter. In this way, the defiled people bowed to the ‘daughters of Moab,’ but they did not serve the idols. For it is written in these words: ‘They called them to the sacrifices of their idols, and the people ate of their sacrifices and bowed down to their idols, and they were joined to Baal of Peor.’ Observe that it does not say, ‘They served their idols,’ for it was impossible, after so many signs and wonders, that they could be persuaded by the women with whom they committed fornication to believe that the idols were gods. Perhaps this also explains the incident with the calf in Exodus, where they ‘bowed down’ but did not serve the calf, which they had merely seen being made. – Origen, (235 AD), Exhortation to Martyrdom, Chapter 6

Treating of the regulations respecting idolatry as being peculiar to Christianity, Celsus establishes their correctness, saying that the Christians do not consider those to be gods that are made with hands, on the ground that it is not in conformity with right reason (to suppose) that images, fashioned by the most worthless and depraved of workmen, and in many instances also provided by wicked men, can be (regarded as) gods. In what follows, however, wishing to show that this is a common opinion, and one not first discovered by Christianity, he quotes a saying of Heraclitus to this effect: “That those who draw near to lifeless images, as if they were gods, act in a similar manner to those who would enter into conversation with houses.” Respecting this, then, we have to say, that ideas were implanted in the minds of men like the principles of morality, from which not only Heraclitus, but any other Greek or barbarian, might by reflection have deduced the same conclusion; for he states that the Persians also were of the same opinion, quoting Herodotus as his authority. We also can add to these Zeno of Citium, who in his Polity, says: “And there will be no need to build temples, for nothing ought to be regarded as sacred, or of much value, or holy, which is the work of builders and of mean men.” It is evident, then, with respect to this opinion (as well as others), that there has been engraven upon the hearts of men by the finger of God a sense of the duty that is required. – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 1, Chapter 5

But if we must once investigate (without being carried away by the miracles themselves) who it is that performs them by help of a good, and who by help of an evil power, so that we may neither slander all without discrimination, nor yet admire and accept all as divine, will it not be manifest, from what occurred in the times of Moses and Jesus, when entire nations were established in consequence of their miracles, that these men wrought by means of divine power what they are recorded to have performed? For wickedness and sorcery would not have led a whole nation to rise not only above idols and images erected by men, but also above all created things, and to ascend to the uncreated origin of the God of the universe. – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 2, Chapter 51

We clearly present the dignity of our doctrine and do not, as Celsus supposes, conceal it, when we impress upon the minds of our first converts a contempt for idols and all images, and in addition lift up their minds from serving created things instead of God, raising them up to the Creator of all things; openly setting forth the one who was foretold both from the prophecies concerning Him—of which there are many—and from the things carefully handed down to those able to hear more intelligently the Gospels and the apostolic teachings. – Origen, Against Celsus, Book 3, Chapter 15

And we clearly manifest the illustrious nature of our origin, and do not (as Celsus imagines) conceal it, when we impress upon the minds of our first converts a contempt for idols, and all images kinds, and, besides this, raise their thoughts from the worship of created things instead of God, and elevate them to the universal Creator; clearly showing Him to be the subject of prophecy, both from the predictions regarding Him—of which there are many—and from those traditions which have been carefully investigated by such as are able intelligently to understand the Gospels, and the declarations of the apostles. – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 3, Chapter 15

Now, what is the resemblance between us and the splendours of Egyptian worship which are seen by those who draw near their temples? And where is the resemblance to those irrational animals which are worshipped within, after you pass through the splendid gateways? Are our prophecies, and the God of all things, and the injunctions against images, objects of reverence in the view of Celsus also, and Jesus Christ crucified, the analogue to the worship of the irrational animal? But if he should assert this—and I do not think that he will maintain anything else—we shall reply that we have spoken in the preceding pages at greater length in defence of those charges affecting Jesus, showing that what appeared to have happened to Him in the capacity of His human nature, was fraught with benefit to all men, and with salvation to the whole world. – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 3, Chapter 17

For these different tribes erected temples and statues to those individuals above enumerated, whereas we have refrained from offering to the Divinity honour by any such means (seeing they are adapted rather to demons, which are somehow fixed in a certain place which they prefer to any other, or which take up their dwelling, as it were, after being removed (from one place to another) by certain rites and incantations), and are lost in reverential wonder at Jesus, who has recalled our minds from all sensible things, as being not only corruptible, but destined to corruption, and elevated them to honour the God who is over all with prayers and a righteous life, which we offer to Him as being intermediate between the nature of the uncreated and that of all created things, and who bestows upon us the benefits which come from the Father, and who as High Priest conveys our prayers to the supreme God. – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 3, Chapter 34

But observe whether the principles of our faith, harmonizing with the general ideas implanted in our minds at birth, do not produce a change upon those who listen candidly to its statements; for although a perverted view of things, with the aid of much instruction to the same effect, has been able to implant in the minds of the multitude the belief that images are gods, and that things made of gold, and silver, and ivory, and stone are deserving of worship, yet common sense forbids the supposition that God is at all a piece of corruptible matter, or is honoured when made to assume by men a form embodied in dead matter, fashioned according to some image or symbol of His appearance. And therefore we say at once of images that they are not gods, and of such creations (of art) that they are not to be compared with the Creator, but are small in contrast with the God who is over all, and who created, and upholds, and governs the universe. And the rational soul recognising, as it were, its relationship (to the divine), at once rejects what it for a time supposed to be gods, and resumes its natural love for its Creator; and because of its affection towards Him, receives Him also who first presented these truths to all nations through the disciples whom He had appointed, and whom He sent forth, furnished with divine power and authority, to proclaim the doctrine regarding God and His kingdom. – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 3, Chapter 40

For in our judgment all are intoxicated who address themselves to inanimate objects as to God. And why do I say “intoxicated?” “Insane” would be the more appropriate word for those who hasten to temples and worship images or animals as divinities. And they too are not less insane who think that images, fashioned by men of worthless and sometimes most wicked character, confer any honour upon genuine divinities.  – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 3, Chapter 76

For, to compare with that illimitable excellence, which surpasses all created being, things which ought not to be brought into comparison with it, is the act of those whose understanding is darkened. We do not then say that those who are sharp-sighted are suffering from ophthalmia or blindness; but we assert that those who, in ignorance of God, give themselves to temples and images, and so-called sacred seasons, are blinded in their minds, and especially when, in addition to their impiety, they live also in licentiousness, not even inquiring after any honourable work whatever, but doing everything that is of a disgraceful character. – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 3, Chapter 77

But if it is on account of those opinions of the Christians and Jews which displease Celsus (and which he does not at all appear to understand) that they are to be regarded as worms and ants, and the rest of mankind as different, let us examine the acknowledged opinions of Christians and Jews, and compare t+hem with those of the rest of mankind, and see whether it will not appear to those who have once admitted that certain men are worms and ants, that they are the worms and ants and frogs who have fallen away from sound views of God, and, under a vain appearance of piety, worship either irrational animals, or images, or other objects, the works of men’s hands; whereas, from the beauty of such, they ought to admire the Maker of them, and worship Him: while those are indeed men, and more honourable than men (if there be anything that is so), who, in obedience to their reason, are able to ascend from stocks and stones, nay, even from what is reckoned the most precious of all matter—silver and gold; and who ascend up also from the beautiful things in the world to the Maker of all, and entrust themselves to Him who alone is able to satisfy all existing things, and to overlook the thoughts of all, and to hear the prayers of all; who send up their prayers to Him, and do all things as in the presence of Him who beholds everything, and who are careful, as in the presence of the Hearer of all things, to say nothing which might not with propriety be reported to God. Will not such piety as this—which can be overcome neither by labours, nor by the dangers of death, nor by logical plausibilities—be of no avail in preventing those who have obtained it from being any longer compared to worms, even if they had been so represented before their assumption of a piety so remarkable? – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 4, Chapter 26

After this, wishing to prove that there is no difference between Jews and Christians, and those animals previously enumerated by him, he asserts that the Jews were “fugitives from Egypt, who never performed anything worthy of note, and never were held in any reputation or account.” Now, on the point of their not being fugitives, nor Egyptians, but Hebrews who settled in Egypt, we have spoken in the preceding pages. But if he thinks his statement, that “they were never held in any reputation or account,” to be proved, because no remarkable event in their history is found recorded by the Greeks, we would answer, that if one will examine their polity from its first beginning, and the arrangement of their laws, he will find that they were men who represented upon earth the shadow of a heavenly life, and that amongst them God is recognised as nothing else, save He who is over all things, and that amongst them no maker of images was permitted to enjoy the rights of citizenship. For neither painter nor image-maker existed in their state, the law expelling all such from it; that there might be no pretext for the construction of images—an art which attracts the attention of foolish men, and which drags down the eyes of the soul from God to earth. There was, accordingly, amongst them a law to the following effect: “Do not transgress the law, and make to yourselves a graven image, any likeness of male or female; either a likeness of any one of the creatures that are upon the earth, or a likeness of any winged fowl that flieth under the heaven, or a likeness of any creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth, or a likeness of any of the fishes which are in the waters under the earth.” The law, indeed, wished them to have regard to the truth of each individual thing, and not to form representations of things contrary to reality, feigning the appearance merely of what was really male or really female, or the nature of animals, or of birds, or of creeping things, or of fishes. Venerable, too, and grand was this prohibition of theirs: “Lift not up thine eyes unto heaven, lest, when thou seest the sun, and the moon, and the stars, and all the host of heaven, thou shouldst be led astray to worship them, and serve them.” – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 4, Chapter 31

But it is probable that what is written by Paul in the first Epistle to the Corinthians, as being addressed to Greeks who prided themselves greatly on their Grecian wisdom, has moved some to believe that it was not the object of the Gospel to win wise men. Now, let him who is of this opinion understand that the Gospel, as censuring wicked men, says of them that they are wise not in things which relate to the understanding, and which are unseen and eternal; but that in busying themselves about things of sense alone, and regarding these as all-important, they are wise men of the world: for as there are in existence a multitude of opinions, some of them espousing the cause of matter and bodies, and asserting that everything is corporeal which has a substantial existence, and that besides these nothing else exists, whether it be called invisible or incorporeal, it says also that these constitute the wisdom of the world, which perishes and fades away, and belongs only to this age, while those opinions which raise the soul from things here to the blessedness which is with God, and to His kingdom, and which teach men to despise all sensible and visible things as existing only for a season, and to hasten on to things invisible, and to have regard to those things which are not seen — these, it says, constitute the wisdom of God. But Paul, as a lover of truth, says of certain wise men among the Greeks, when their statements are true, that although they knew God, they glorified Him not as God, neither were thankful. And he bears witness that they knew God, and says, too, that this did not happen to them without divine permission, in these words: For God showed it unto them; dimly alluding, I think, to those who ascend from things of sense to those of the understanding, when he adds, For the invisible things of God from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even His eternal power and Godhead; so that they are without excuse: because that, when they knew God, they glorified Him not as God, neither were thankful. – Origen, Against Celsus, Book 3, Chapter 47

For it is absurd to think that stones are purer or more defiled than other stones, and buildings than other buildings, merely because they have been constructed either for the honor of the divine or for the reception of the most dishonorable and impure bodies; yet that bodies do not differ from other bodies, whether those dwelling in them are rational or irrational, and among rational beings, whether they are the most virtuous or the most depraved of men. – Origen, Against Celsus, Book 4, Chapter 59

In making these statements, Celsus appears to have fallen into confusion, and to have penned them from false ideas of things which he did not understand; for it is patent to all who investigate the practices of the Jews, and compare them with those of the Christians, that the Jews who follow the law, which, speaking in the person of God, says, “Thou shalt have no other gods before Me: thou shalt not make unto thee an image, nor a likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the waters under the earth; thou shalt not bow down to them, nor serve them,” worship nothing else than the Supreme God, who made the heavens, and all things besides. Now it is evident that those who live according to the law, and worship the Maker of heaven, will not worship the heaven at the same time with God. Moreover, no one who obeys the law of Moses will bow down to the angels who are in heaven; and, in like manner, as they do not bow down to sun, moon, and stars, the host of heaven, they refrain from doing obeisance to heaven and its angels, obeying the law which declares: “Lest thou lift up thine eyes to heaven, and when thou see the sun, and the moon, and the stars, even all the host of heaven, should be driven to worship them, and serve them, which the LORD thy God hath divided unto all nations.” – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 5, Chapter 6

As we allege, however, that he has fallen into confusion in consequence of false notions which he has imbibed, come and let us point them out to the best of our ability, and show that although Celsus considers it to be a Jewish custom to bow down to the heaven and the angels in it, such a practice is not at all Jewish, but is in violation of Judaism, as it also is to do obeisance to sun, moon, and stars, as well as images. You will find at least in the book of Jeremiah the words of God censuring by the mouth of the prophet the Jewish people for doing obeisance to such objects, and for sacrificing to the queen of heaven, and to all the host of heaven. The writings of the Christians, moreover, show, in censuring the sins committed among the Jews, that when God abandoned that people on account of certain sins, these sins (of idol-worship) also were committed by them. For it is related in the Acts of the Apostles regarding the Jews, that “God turned, and gave them up to worship the host of heaven; as it is written in the book of the prophets, O ye house of Israel, have ye offered to Me slain beasts and sacrifices by the space of forty years in the wilderness? Yea, ye took up the tabernacle of Moloch, and the star of your god Remphan, figures which you made to worship them.” And in the writings of Paul, who was carefully trained in Jewish customs, and converted afterwards to Christianity by a miraculous appearance of Jesus, the following words may be read in the Epistle to the Colossians: “Let no man beguile you of your reward in a voluntary humility and worshipping of angels, intruding into those things which he hath not seen, vainly puffed up by his fleshly mind; and not holding the Head, from which all the body by joint and bands having nourishment ministered, and knit together, increaseth with the increase of God.” But Celsus, having neither read these verses, nor having learned their contents from any other source, has represented, I know not how, the Jews as not transgressing their law in bowing down to the heavens, and to the angels therein. – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 5, Chapter 8

It was not therefore consonant to reason that those who had been taught sublimely to ascend above all created things, and to hope for the enjoyment of the most glorious rewards with God on account of their virtuous lives, and who had heard the words, You are the light of the world, and, Let your light so shine before men, that they, seeing your good works, may glorify your Father who is in heaven, and who possessed through practice this brilliant and unfading wisdom, or who had secured even the very reflection of everlasting light, should be so impressed with the (mere) visible light of sun, and moon, and stars, that, on account of that sensible light of theirs, they should deem themselves (although possessed of so great a rational light of knowledge, and of the true light, and the light of the world, and the light of men) to be somehow inferior to them, and to bow down to them; seeing they ought to be worshipped, if they are to receive worship at all, not for the sake of the sensible light which is admired by the multitude, but because of the rational and true light, if indeed the stars in heaven are rational and virtuous beings, and have been illuminated with the light of knowledge by that wisdom which is the reflection of everlasting light. For that sensible light of theirs is the work of the Creator of all things, while that rational light is derived perhaps from the principle of free-will within them. – Origen, Against Celsus, Book 5, Chapter 10

And being persuaded that the sun himself, and moon, and stars pray to the Supreme God through His only-begotten Son, we judge it improper to pray to those beings who themselves offer up prayers (to God), seeing even they themselves would prefer that we should send up our requests to the God to whom they pray, rather than send them downwards to themselves, or apportion our power of prayer between God and them. – Origen, Against Celsus, Book 5, Chapter 11 And it is absurd, when He who fills heaven and earth, and who said, Do I not fill heaven and earth? Says the Lord, is with us, and near us (for I believe Him when He says, I am a God near at hand, and not afar off, says the Lord ) to seek to pray to sun or moon, or one of the stars, whose influence does not reach the whole of the world. But, to use the very words of Celsus, let it be granted that the sun, moon, and stars do foretell rain, and heat, and clouds, and thunders, why, then, if they really do foretell such great things, ought we not rather to do homage to God, whose servant they are in uttering these predictions, and show reverence to Him rather than His prophets? Let them predict, then, the approach of lightnings, and fruits, and all manner of productions, and let all such things be under their administration; yet we shall not on that account worship those who themselves offer worship, as we do not worship even Moses, and those prophets who came from God after him, and who predicted better things than rain, and heat, and clouds, and thunders, and lightnings, and fruits, and all sorts of productions visible to the senses. – Origen, Against Celsus, Book 5, Chapter 12

The argument of Celsus appears to point by these illustrations to this conclusion: that it is “an obligation incumbent on all men to live according to their country’s customs, in which case they will escape censure; whereas the Christians, who have abandoned their native usages, and who are not one nation like the Jews, are to be blamed for giving their adherence to the teaching of Jesus.” Let him then tell us whether it is a becoming thing for philosophers, and those who have been taught not to yield to superstition, to abandon their country’s customs, so as to eat of those articles of food which are prohibited in their respective cities? or whether this proceeding of theirs is opposed to what is becoming? For if, on account of their philosophy, and the instructions which they have received against superstition, they should eat, in disregard of their native laws, what was interdicted by their fathers, why should the Christians (since the Gospel requires them not to busy themselves about statues and images, or even about any of the created works of God but to ascend on high, and present the soul to the Creator); when acting in a similar manner to the philosophers, be censured for so doing? But if, for the sake of defending the thesis which he has proposed to himself, Celsus, or those who think with him, should say, that even one who had studied philosophy would keep his country’s laws, then philosophers in Egypt, for example, would act most ridiculously in avoiding the eating of onions, in order to observe their country’s laws, or certain parts of the body, as the head and shoulders, in order not to transgress the traditions of their fathers. And I do not speak of those Egyptians who shudder with fear at the discharge of wind from the body, because if any one of these were to become a philosopher, and still observe the laws of his country, he would be a ridiculous philosopher, acting very unphilosophically. In the same way, then, he who has been led by the Gospel to worship the God of all things, and, from regard to his country’s laws, lingers here below among images and statues of men, and does not desire to ascend to the Creator, will resemble those who have indeed learned philosophy, but who are afraid of things which ought to inspire no terrors, and who regard it as an act of impiety to eat of those things which have been enumerated. – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 5, Chapter 35

Moreover, we may see those who greatly pride themselves upon their wisdom and theology worshipping the image of a corruptible man, in honour, they say, of Him, and sometimes even descending, with the Egyptians, to the worship of birds, and four-footed beasts, and creeping things! And although some may appear to have risen above such practices, nevertheless they will be found to have changed the truth of God into a lie, and to worship and serve the “creature more than the Creator.” – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus Book 6 Chapter 4

And the Logos, exhorting us to come to this light, says, in the prophecies of Isaiah: “Enlighten thyself, enlighten thyself, O Jerusalem; for thy light is come, and the glory of the LORD is risen upon thee.” The same prophet also, when predicting the advent of Jesus, who was to turn away men from the worship of idols, and of images, and of demons, says, “To those that sat in the land and shadow of death, upon them hath the light arisen;” and again, “The people that sat in darkness saw a great light.” – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 6, Chapter 5

In designating others by the epithets of “uninstructed, and servile, and ignorant,” Celsus, I suppose, means those who are not acquainted with his laws, nor trained in the branches of Greek learning; while we, on the other hand, deem those to be “uninstructed” who are not ashamed to address (supplications) to inanimate objects, and to call upon those for health that have no strength, and to ask the dead for life, and to entreat the helpless for assistance. And although some may say that these objects are not gods, but only imitations and symbols of real divinities, nevertheless these very individuals, in imagining that the hands of low mechanics can frame imitations of divinity, are “uninstructed, and servile, and ignorant;” for we assert that the lowest among us have been set free from this ignorance and want of knowledge, while the most intelligent can understand and grasp the divine hope. We do not maintain, however, that it is impossible for one who has not been trained in earthly wisdom to receive the “divine,” but we do acknowledge that all human wisdom is “folly” in comparison with the “divine.” – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 6, Chapter 14

In the next place, again, mixing up together matters which belong to magic and sorcery, and referring them perhaps to no one,—because of the non-existence of any who practise magic under pretence of a worship of this character,—and yet, perhaps, having in view some who do employ such practices in the presence of the simple (that they may have the appearance of acting by divine power), he adds: “What need to number up all those who have taught methods of purification, or expiatory hymns, or spells for averting evil, or (the making of) images, or resemblances of demons, or the various sorts of antidotes against poison (to be found) in clothes, or in numbers, or stones, or plants, or roots, or generally in all kinds of things?” In respect to these matters, reason does not require us to offer any defence, since we are not liable in the slightest degree to suspicions of such a nature. – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 6, Chapter 39

“Let us also examine his next statement, by which he, as it were, personifies someone who, after hearing these things, says such words: ‘How then shall I know God? And how shall I learn the way to Him? And how do you show Him to me? For at present you cast darkness before my eyes, and I see nothing clearly.’ Then, to the one thus perplexed, he seems to reply and thinks to explain the reason why darkness has been poured over the eyes of the speaker of these things, saying: ‘If someone should lead men out of darkness into bright light, those who are unable to endure the flashes of brightness are punished in their sight and harmed, and think themselves blinded.’ And to these things we shall say that all those who gaze upon the bad craftsmanship of painters and sculptors and makers of statues sit indeed in darkness and are settled in it, not wishing to look up and ascend in mind from all visible and perceptible things to the Creator of the universe, who is light. But everyone who follows the beams of the Logos comes to be in the light, the Logos having shown from what ignorance and impiety and lack of understanding concerning divine things these objects were worshipped instead of God, and having led by the hand the mind of the one wishing to be saved toward the unbegotten God who is over all. For ‘the people sitting in darkness,’ namely the Gentiles, ‘saw a great light, and to those sitting in the region and shadow of death, light arose’ — namely God, Jesus. Therefore no Christian answers Celsus, or anyone accusing the divine Logos, by saying: ‘How shall I know God?’ For each of them, insofar as possible, has known God. And no one says: ‘How shall I learn the way there?’ Since he has heard the One who said: ‘I am the way and the truth and the life,’ and has tasted the benefit that comes from walking in that way. And no Christian would say to Celsus: ‘How do you show God to me?’ – Origen Against Celsus, Book 6, Ch. 66

And because the prescriptions of the law were obeyed both by Samaritans and Jews in a corporeal and literal manner, our Saviour said to the Samaritan woman, “The hour is coming, when neither in Jerusalem, nor in this mountain, shall ye worship the Father. God is a Spirit; and they that worship Him must worship Him in spirit and in truth.” And by these words He taught men that God must be worshipped not in the flesh, and with fleshly sacrifices, but in the spirit. And He will be understood to be a Spirit in proportion as the worship rendered to Him is rendered in spirit, and with understanding. It is not, however, with images that we are to worship the Father, but “in truth,” which “came by Jesus Christ,” after the giving of the law by Moses. For when we turn to the Lord (and the Lord is a Spirit), He takes away the veil which lies upon the heart when Moses is read. – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 6, Chapter 70

Are we not compelled by reason to set down as evil such spirits as employ the power of prophesying — a power in itself neither good nor bad — for the purpose of deceiving men, and thus turn them away from God, and from the purity of His service? It is moreover evident that this is their character, when we add that they delight in the blood of victims, and in the smoke odour of sacrifices, and that they feed their bodies on these, and that they take pleasure in such haunts as these, as though they sought in them the sustenance of their lives; in this resembling those depraved men who despise the purity of a life apart from the senses, and who have no inclination except for the pleasures of the body, and for that earthly and bodily life in which these pleasures are found. – Origen, Against Celsus, book 7, chapter 5

But whether Orpheus, Parmenides, Empedocles, or even Homer himself, and Hesiod, are the persons whom he means by “inspired poets,” let any one show how those who follow their guidance walk in a better way, or lead a more excellent life, than those who, being taught in the school of Jesus Christ, have rejected all images and statues, and even all Jewish superstition, that they may look upward through the Word of God to the one God, who is the Father of the Word. – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 7, Chapter 41

So then, let Plato say that it is a ‘task’ to find ‘the maker and father of this universe,’ not implying that it is impossible for human nature to find God worthily — or, if not worthily, at least more than the many and beyond ordinary people. But if this had been true, and God had truly been found by Plato or by some one of the Greeks, they would not have worshipped something else also, and called it god, and bowed down to it — either abandoning this One, or bringing alongside Him things that ought not to be associated with so great a God. – Origen, Against Celsus, Book 7, Chapter 42

God doubtless saw the pride and arrogance of those who, with contempt for all others, boast of their knowledge of God, and of their profound acquaintance with divine things obtained from philosophy, but who still, not less even than the most ignorant, run after their images, and temples, and famous mysteries; and seeing this, He “has chosen the foolish things of this world”—the simplest of Christians, who lead, however, a life of greater moderation and purity than many philosophers—“to confound the wise,” who are not ashamed to address inanimate things as gods or images of the gods. For what reasonable man can refrain from smiling when he sees that one who has learned from philosophy such profound and noble sentiments about God or the gods, turns straightway to images and offers to them his prayers, or imagines that by gazing upon these material things he can ascend from the visible symbol to that which is spiritual and immaterial. But a Christian, even of the common people, is assured that every place forms part of the universe, and that the whole universe is God’s temple. In whatever part of the world he is, he prays; but he rises above the universe, “shutting the eyes of sense, and raising upwards the eyes of the soul.” And he stops not at the vault of heaven; but passing in thought beyond the heavens, under the guidance of the Spirit of God, and having thus as it were gone beyond the visible universe, he offers prayers to God. But he prays for no trivial blessings, for he has learnt from Jesus to seek for nothing small or mean, that is, sensible objects, but to ask only for what is great and truly divine; and these things God grants to us, to lead us to that blessedness which is found only with Him through His Son, the Word, who is God. – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus Book 7 Chapter 44

Had Celsus set himself to understand this, he would not have reproached as with ignorance, or forbidden us to characterize as “blind” those who believe that religion shows itself in such products of man’s mechanical art as images. For everyone who sees with the eyes of his soul serves the Divine Being in no other way than in that which leads him ever to have regard to the Creator of all, to address his prayers to Him alone, and to do all things as in the sight of God, who sees us altogether, even to our thoughts. Our earnest desire then is both to see for ourselves, and to be leaders of the blind, to bring them to the Word of God, that He may take away from their minds the blindness of ignorance. And if our actions are worthy of Him who taught His disciples, “Ye are the light of the world,” and of the Word, who says, “The light shineth in darkness,” then we shall be light to those who are in darkness; we shall give wisdom to those who are without it, and we shall instruct the ignorant. – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus Book 7 Chapter 51

You see from this, then, that the object of Celsus is to vilify the character of Jesus; and I can only suppose that he is driven to it by some spirit akin to those whose power has been broken and vanquished by Jesus, and which now finds itself deprived of the smoke and blood on which it lived, whilst deceiving those who sought for God here upon earth in images, instead of looking up to the true God, the Governor of all things. – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus, Book 7, Chapter 56

Let us now see what follows. “Let us pass on,” says he [Celsus], “to another point. They [Christians] cannot tolerate temples, altars, or images. In this they are like the Scythians, the nomadic tribes of Libya, the Seres who worship no god, and some other of the most barbarous and impious nations in the world. That the Persians hold the same notions is shown by Herodotus in these words: ‘I know that among the Persians it is considered unlawful to erect images, altars, or temples; but they charge those with folly who do so, because, as I conjecture, they do not, like the Greeks, suppose the gods to be of the nature of men.’ Heraclitus also says in one place: ‘Persons who address prayers to these images act like those who speak to the walls, without knowing who the gods or the heroes are.’ And what wiser lesson have they to teach us than Heraclitus? He certainly plainly enough implies that it is a foolish thing for a man to offer prayers to images, whilst he knows not who the gods and heroes are. This is the opinion of Heraclitus; but as for them, they [the Christians] go further, and despise without exception all images. If they merely mean that the stone, wood, brass, or gold which has been wrought by this or that workman cannot be a god, they are ridiculous with their wisdom. For who, unless he be utterly childish in his simplicity, can take these for gods, and not for offerings consecrated to the service of the gods, or images representing them? But if we are not to regard these as representing the Divine Being, seeing that God has a different form, as the Persians concur with them in saying, then let them [the Christians] take care that they do not contradict themselves; for they say that God made man His own image, and that He gave him a form like to Himself. [<- Cathodox say this to defend image-worship; refer to Chrysostom on image of God: they say, Look: he said, “‘In our image”‘] However, they will admit that these images, whether they are like or not, are made and dedicated to the honour of certain beings. But they will hold that the beings to whom they are dedicated are not gods, but demons, and that a worshipper of God ought not to worship demons.” – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus, Book 7, Chapter 62

[Origen says] To this our answer is, that if the Scythians, the nomadic tribes of Libya, the Seres, who according to Celsus have no god, if those other most barbarous and impious nations in the world, and if the Persians even cannot bear the sight of temples, altars, and images, it does not follow because we cannot suffer them any more than they, that the grounds on which we object to them are the same as theirs. We must inquire into the principles on which the objection to temples and images is founded, in order that we may approve of those who object on sound principles, and condemn those whose principles are false. For one and the same thing may be done for different reasons. For example, the philosophers who follow Zeno of Citium abstain from committing adultery, the followers of Epicurus do so too, as well as others again who do so on no philosophical principles; but observe what different reasons determine the conduct of these different classes. The first consider the interests of society, and hold it to be forbidden by nature that a man who is a reasonable being should corrupt a woman whom the laws have already given to another, and should thus break up the household of another man. The Epicureans do not reason in this way; but if they abstain from adultery, it is because, regarding pleasure as the chief end of man, they perceive that one who gives himself up to adultery, encounters for the sake of this one pleasure a multitude of obstacles to pleasure, such as imprisonment, exile, and death itself. They often, indeed, run considerable risk at the outset, while watching for the departure from the house of the master and those in his interest. So that, supposing it possible for a man to commit adultery, and escape the knowledge of the husband, of his servants, and of others whose esteem he would forfeit, then the Epicurean would yield to the commission of the crime for the sake of pleasure. The man of no philosophical system, again, who abstains from adultery when the opportunity comes to him, does so generally from dread of the law and its penalties, and not for the sake of enjoying a greater number of other pleasures. You see, then, that an act which passes for being one and the same—namely, abstinence from adultery—is not the same, but differs in different men according to the motives which actuate it: one man refraining for sound reasons, another for such bad and impious ones as those of the Epicurean, and the common person of whom we have spoken. – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus, Book 7, Chapter 63

As, then, this act of self-restraint, which in appearance is one and the same, is found in fact to be different in different persons, according to the principles and motives which lead to it; so in the same way with those who cannot allow in the worship of the Divine Being altars, or temples, or images. The Scythians, the Nomadic Libyans, the godless Seres, and the Persians, agree in this with the Christians and Jews, but they are actuated by very different principles. For none of these former abhor altars and images on the ground that they are afraid of degrading the worship of God, and reducing it to the worship of material things wrought by the hands of men. Neither do they object to them from a belief that the demons choose certain forms and places, whether because they are detained there by virtue of certain charms, or because for some other possible reason they have selected these haunts, where they may pursue their criminal pleasures, in partaking of the smoke of sacrificial victims. But Christians and Jews have regard to this command, “Thou shalt fear the Lord thy God, and serve Him alone;” and this other, “Thou shalt have no other gods before Me: thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth: thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them;” and again, “Thou shalt worship the Lord thy God, and Him only shalt thou serve.” It is in consideration of these and many other such commands, that they not only avoid temples, altars, and images, but are ready to suffer death when it is necessary, rather than debase by any such impiety the conception which they have of the Most High God. – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus, Book 7, Chapter 64

In regard to the Persians, we have already said that though they do not build temples, yet they worship the sun and the other works of God. This is forbidden to us, for we have been taught not to worship the creature instead of the Creator, but to know that “the creation shall be delivered from the bondage of corruption into the liberty of the glory of the children of God;” and “the earnest expectation of the creation is waiting for the revelation of the sons of God;” and “the creation was made subject to vanity, not willingly, but by reason of him who made it subject, in hope.” We believe, therefore, that things “under the bondage of corruption,” and “subject to vanity,” which remain in this condition “in hope” of a better state, ought not in our worship to hold the place of God, the all-sufficient, and of His Son, the First-born of all creation. Let this suffice, in addition to what we have already said of the Persians, who abhor altars and images, but who serve the creature instead of the Creator. As to the passage quoted by Celsus from Heraclitus, the purport of which he represents as being, “that it is childish folly for one to offer prayers to images, whilst he knows not who the gods and heroes are,” we may reply that it is easy to know that God and the Only-begotten Son of God, and those whom God has honoured with the title of God, and who partake of His divine nature, are very different from all the gods of the nations which are demons; but it is not possible at the same time to know God and to address prayers to images. – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus, Book 7, Chapter 65

And the charge of folly applies not only to those who offer prayers to images, but also to such as pretend to do so in compliance with the example of the multitude: and to this class belong the Peripatetic philosophers and the followers of Epicurus and Democritus. For there is no falsehood or pretence in the soul which is possessed with true piety towards God. Another reason also why we abstain from doing honour to images, is that we may give no support to the notion that the images are gods. It is on this ground that we condemn Celsus, and all others who, while admitting that they are not gods, yet, with the reputation of being wise men, render to them what passes for homage. In this way they lead into sin the multitude who follow their example, and who worship these images not simply out of deference to custom, but from a belief into which they have fallen that they are true gods, and that those are not to be listened to who hold that the objects of their worship are not true gods. Celsus, indeed, says that “they do not take them for gods, but only as offerings dedicated to the gods.” But he does not prove that they are not rather dedicated to men than, as he says, to the honour of the gods themselves; for it is clear that they are the offerings of men who were in error in their views of the Divine Being. Moreover, we do not imagine that these images are representations of God, for they cannot represent a being who is invisible and incorporeal. But as Celsus supposes that we fall into a contradiction, whilst on the one hand we say that God has not a human form, and on the other we profess to believe that God made man the image of Himself, and created man the image of God; our answer is the same as has been given already, that we hold the resemblance to God to be preserved in the reasonable soul, which is formed to virtue, although Celsus, who does not see the difference between “being the image of God,” and “being created after the image of God,” pretends that we said, “God made man His own image, and gave him a form like to His own.” But this also has been examined before. – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus, Book 7, Chapter 66

His next remark upon the Christians is: “They will admit that these images, whether they are like or not, are made and dedicated to the honour of certain beings; but they will hold that the beings to whom they are dedicated are not gods, but demons, and that a worshipper of God ought not to worship demons.” If he had been acquainted with the nature of demons, and with their several operations, whether led on to them by the conjurations of those who are skilled in the art, or urged on by their own inclination to act according to their power and inclination; if, I say, he had thoroughly understood this subject, which is both wide in extent and difficult for human comprehension, he would not have condemned us for saying that those who worship the Supreme Being should not serve demons. For ourselves, so far are we from wishing to serve demons, that by the use of prayers and other means which we learn from Scripture, we drive them out of the souls of men, out of places where they have established themselves, and even sometimes from the bodies of animals; for even these creatures often suffer from injuries inflicted upon them by demons. – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus Book 7 Chapter 67

Hence we are determined to avoid the worship of demons even as we would avoid death; and we hold that the worship, which is supposed among the Greeks to be rendered to gods at the altars, and images, and temples, is in reality offered to demons. – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus, Book 7, Chapter 69

To explain this fully, and to justify the conduct of the Christians in refusing homage to any object except the Most High God, and the First-born of all creation, who is His Word and God, we must quote this from Scripture, “All that ever came before Me are thieves and robbers: but the sheep did not hear them;” and again, “The thief cometh not, but for to steal, and to kill, and to destroy;” and other similar passages, as, “Behold, I have given you authority to tread on serpents and scorpions, and over all the power of the enemy: and nothing shall by any means hurt you;” and again, “Thou shalt tread upon the lion and adder: the young lion and the dragon shalt thou trample under feet.” – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus, Book 7, Chapter 70

Celsus then proceeds to say that we shrink from raising altars, statues, and temples; and this, he thinks, has been agreed upon among us as the badge or distinctive mark of a secret and forbidden society. He does not perceive that we regard the spirit of every good man as an altar from which arises an incense which is truly and spiritually sweet-smelling, namely, the prayers ascending from a pure conscience. Therefore it is said by John in the Revelation, The odours are the prayers of saints; and by the Psalmist, “Let my prayer come up before You as incense.” And the statues and gifts which are fit offerings to God are the work of no common mechanics, but are wrought and fashioned in us by the Word of God, to wit, the virtues in which we imitate the First-born of all creation, who has set us an example of justice, of temperance, of courage, of wisdom, of piety, and of the other virtues. In all those, then, who plant and cultivate within their souls, according to the divine word, temperance, justice, wisdom, piety, and other virtues, these excellences are their statues they raise, in which we are persuaded that it is becoming for us to honour the model and prototype of all statues: the image of the invisible God, God the Only-begotten. And again, they who put off the old man with his deeds, and put on the new man, which is renewed in knowledge after the image of Him that has created him, in taking upon them the image of Him who has created them, do raise within themselves a statue like to what the Most High God Himself desires. And as among statuaries there are some who are marvellously perfect in their art, as for example Pheidias and Polycleitus, and among painters, Zeuxis and Apelles, while others make inferior statues, and others, again, are inferior to the second-rate artists — so that, taking all together, there is a wide difference in the execution of statues and pictures — in the same way there are some who form images of the Most High in a better manner and with a more perfect skill; so that there is no comparison even between the Olympian Jupiter of Pheidias and the man who has been fashioned according to the image of God the Creator. But by far the most excellent of all these throughout the whole creation is that image in our Saviour who said, My Father is in Me. – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus, Book 8, Chapter 17

And in each of those who, according to their ability, imitate Him, there is also a statue of the “image of the Creator,” which they fashion by beholding God with a pure heart, having become “imitators of God.” And, generally speaking, all Christians strive to establish the kinds of altars and the kinds of statues we have described — not lifeless and senseless ones, nor such as are fit receptacles for demons lurking around inanimate things, but ones filled with the Spirit of God, who dwells fittingly in the aforesaid statues of virtue and in the “image of the Creator.” In the same way also the Spirit of Christ rests upon those who are, so to speak, conformed to Him. And wishing to present such things, the Word of God recorded God as saying in promise to the righteous: “I will dwell in them and walk among them, and I will be their God, and they shall be My people”; and the Savior as saying: ‘If anyone hears My words and does them, I and My Father will come to him and make our dwelling with him. Let the one who wishes, then, compare the altars I have described with the altars of which Celsus speaks, and the statues in the soul of those who are pious toward the God of all with the statues of Phidias and Polykleitos and others like them. And he will clearly know that those are lifeless and perish with time, whereas these remain in the immortal soul for as long as the rational soul chooses to preserve them within itself. – Origen Against Celsus, Book 8, Chapter 18

And if, further, temples are to be compared with temples, that we may prove to those who accept the opinions of Celsus that we do not object to the erection of temples suited to the images and altars of which we have spoken, but that we do refuse to build lifeless temples to the Giver of all life, let any one who chooses learn how we are taught, that our bodies are the temple of God, and that if any one by lust or sin defiles the temple of God, he will himself be destroyed, as acting impiously towards the true temple. Of all the temples spoken of in this sense, the best and most excellent was the pure and holy body of our Saviour Jesus Christ. – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus, Book 8, Chapter 19

It is not therefore true that we object to building altars, statues, and temples, because we have agreed to make this the badge of a secret and forbidden society; but we do so, because we have learned from Jesus Christ the true way of serving God, and we shrink from whatever, under a pretence of piety, leads to utter impiety those who abandon the way marked out for us by Jesus Christ. – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus, Book 8, Chapter 20

And we read, “Bless them that curse you; bless, and curse not;” also, “Being reviled, we bless.” And even although the abuse which we pour upon another may seem to have some excuse in the wrong which we have received from him, yet such abuse is not allowed by the word of God. And how much more ought we to abstain from reviling others, when we consider what a great folly it is! And it is equally foolish to apply abusive language to stone or gold or silver, turned into what is supposed to be the form of God by those who have no knowledge of God. Accordingly, we throw ridicule not upon lifeless images, but upon those only who worship (προσκυνούντων) them. Moreover, if certain demons reside in certain images, and one of them passes for Bacchus, another for Hercules, we do not vilify them: for, on the one hand, it would be useless; and, on the other, it does not become one who is meek, and peaceful, and gentle in spirit, and who has learnt that no one among men or demons is to be reviled, however wicked he may be. – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus, Book 8, Chapter 41

Then Celsus, returning to those who apply abusive language to images, says: “Of those whom you load with insults, you may in like manner say that they voluntarily submit to such treatment, and therefore they bear insults with patience; for it is best to deal equally with both sides. Yet these severely punish the scorner, so that he must either flee and hide himself, or be taken and perish.” It is not, then, because Christians cast insults upon demons that they incur their revenge, but because they drive them away out of the images, and from the bodies and souls of men. And here, although Celsus perceives it not, he has on this subject spoken something like the truth; for it is true that the souls of those who condemn Christians, and betray them, and rejoice in persecuting them, are filled with wicked demons. – Origen (248 AD) Against Celsus, Book 8, Chapter 43

And should he not have considered whether it is very probable that a people who faithfully served the Most High God, and who ofttimes encountered numberless dangers, and even death, rather than sacrifice the honour of God, and what they believed to be the revelations of His will, should have been wholly overlooked by God? Should it not rather be thought probable that people who despised the efforts of human art to represent the Divine Being, but strove rather to rise in thought to the knowledge of the Most High, should have been favoured with some revelation from Himself? Besides, he ought to have considered that the common Father and Creator of all, who sees and hears all things, and who duly esteems the intention of every man who seeks Him and desires to serve Him” – Origen Against Celsus, Book 8, Chapter 53

On this basis, then, men become without excuse, since although they knew God (since God made himself known), they have not, as is fitting, worshiped God or given thanks, but through their own futile way of thinking, while they seek after forms and images for God, they have destroyed the image of God within themselves. Those who were openly boasting to be in the light of wisdom have fallen into the deep darkness of foolishness. For what is so revolting, so dark, and so gloomy as to turn the glory of God into the bodily and corruptible effigy of a human form, as is the custom of those who worship images; to equate the greatness of the divine majesty with birds and four-footed animals and reptiles? – Origen, Commentary on Romans, Book 1, Chapter 17, Section 2

And the kind of judgment they used against the veneration of the deity when they transferred the glory of the incorruptible God to disgusting and unworthy forms of men and animals was the same judgment they used in turn against themselves, that rational human beings live after the fashion of irrational beasts. – Origen, Commentary on Romans, Book 1, Chapter 18

So then, it is the lot of those who are zealously devoted to images to degrade their own bodies, and for those who have abandoned the Creator to worship the creation. We, however, worship and adore only the Father and the Son and Holy Spirit and no created thing. Just as we do not wander into error in our worship, so we do not sin even in our actions and manner of life, nor do we imitate those who mutually degrade their own bodies, considering what the Apostle says, “Do you not know that your bodies are members of Christ?” and again, “Your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit.” As members of Christ and a temple of the Holy Spirit let us preserve our bodies in all holiness and purity so that they might become worthy not only for angels to enter but indeed also to be a habitation of the Holy Spirit and a dwelling place of the Father and the Son, who said of the one who abides in his commands, “I and the Father will come and make a dwelling place with him.” – Origen, Commentary on Romans, Book 1, Chapter 18, Section 10

Let us see next what the second commandment also appears to contain: “You shall not make for yourself an idol nor any likeness of those things which are in heaven or which are in the earth or which are in the waters under the earth.” There is a great difference between idols and gods as the Apostle himself no less teaches us. For he said of gods, “Just as there are many gods and many lords”; but regarding idols he says, “An idol is nothing in the world.” Whence it seems to me that what the Law says has not been said in passing. For it makes a distinction between gods and idols and again between idols and likenesses, for he who said that idols are nothing did not add that likenesses also are nothing. Here, however, the text says, “You shall not make for yourself an idol nor a likeness of anything.” Therefore, it is one thing to make an “idol,” another to make a “likeness.” And if the Lord should see fit to illuminate us on what is to be said, I think it is to be so interpreted that, for example, if someone with gold or silver or wood or stone should make the form of any four-footed animal or serpent or bird and set it up to be adored, he has made not an idol, but a likeness, or even if he set up a painting for this purpose he is to be said no less to have made a likeness. But he has made an idol who, according to the Apostle’s word that “an idol is nothing,” makes what is not. But what is that which is not? A form which the eye does not see, but which the mind imagines for itself. For example, if someone should fashion the head of a dog or a ram on human members, or again, devise two faces on one appearance of a man, or join the hindmost parts of a horse or fish to a human breast. He who makes these things and things like them does not make a likeness, but an idol. For he makes what is not, nor is there anything like it. And, therefore, knowing these things the Apostle says, “An idol is nothing in the world,” for no form is adopted from existing things but that which the idle and curious mind itself perceived in itself. But it is a likeness when something is fashioned of these things which are “either in heaven or in earth or in the waters,” as we said above. Nevertheless it is not easy to speak thus also about heavenly likenesses as about these likenesses which are in earth or in the sea, unless someone should say that this can be perceived of the sun, moon, and stars, for it is also customary for paganism to portray forms of these. But because Moses “was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians,” he desired to prohibit also those things which were in their case secret and hidden. For example, he wished to prohibit us from using their titles, Hecate, and other forms of demons, which the Apostle calls “the spiritual things of wickedness in heavenly places.” The prophet also says, perhaps about the same things: “My sword is inebriated in heaven.” For it is the custom with these who care about such things to invoke demons with these forms and likenesses either for repelling or even calling down evils. The word of God now embracing all these things at the same time denies and casts them out, and forbids not only the making of an idol, but also of “a likeness of all things which are in the earth and in the waters and in heaven.” – Origen, Homily 8 on Exodus, chapter 3

The text goes on to say, “You shall not adore (proskineo) them nor worship (latreio) them.” It is one thing to worship, another to adore. One can sometimes adore even against his will, as some fawn to kings when they see them given to fondness of this kind. They pretend that they are adoring idols when in their heart they are certain that an idol is nothing. But to worship is to be subjected to these with total desire and zeal. Let the divine word, therefore, restrain both, that you may neither worship with desire nor adore in appearance. – Origen, Homily 8 on Exodus, chapter 4

[3] “And that man was truthful, blameless, righteous, God-fearing, and avoiding every evil deed.” [4] For the wicked people are false, just as those who portray God in pictures. [5] Fear God, keep the commandments, for this is the duty of every man.[6] Blameless, because he is righteous. [7] God-fearing, for a good life leads to knowing God, and the knowledge of God becomes the guard of life. – Origen, Homilies on Job [Patrologia Graeca Vol. 12]

God, having judged to subject sinners to punishments, allowed some men to remain untried by these punishments, and those still persisting in the deeds they committed, and as many as remained untouched by these punishments, He left them so that they might have room for repentance, in order that they might no longer worship demons, the golden and the images made from other materials. This shows that some worship demons, the golden and silver, as well as bronze and wooden images; that is, the spirits attending the lifeless forms are understood as demons. The golden and the rest, being insensible to sight and hearing, nor walking, are the perceptible images. For they have mouths but do not speak, and the rest, as it is written in the Psalms. – Origen, Scholia in Apocalypsin [Journal of Theological Studies 25] 1923: page 12

And do you wish to see that those things are explained to be about us not by me but by the Apostle? Listen to what he himself says: “But what does Scripture say in the case of Elijah, how he speaks against Israel to God? ‘Lord, they have killed your prophets, they have demolished your high altars, and I alone have remained, and they seek my life.’ And indeed what does [Scripture] say is the divine reply to him? ‘I have left as a remnant for myself seven thousand men who did not bow down to Baal’” (1 Kings 19:10, 18), and adds, “Therefore, in this way,” he [the Apostle] says, “and at this time the remainder have been saved according to the election of grace” (Romans 11:2-5). You see, then, that he understands those who “bowed down to the Baals” to be among the multitude of nonbelievers, and those “who did not bow down” to be among the remnant of believers. And this shows that those unbelievers and impious persons who lived during the time of the Savior “bowed down to the Baals” and worshiped images, but these who believe and complete the works of faith “did not bow down to the Baals.” For neither is it mentioned anywhere in the histories nor in the Gospels nor in any other Scriptures that anyone at the time of the Savior would have bowed down to images, but this is said particularly about those who were kept bound, indeed as if shackled, by their sins. Whence it is certain that as often as we sin and “are taken captive under the law of sin” (Romans 7:23), we “bow down to the Baals.” — Origen, Homilies on Judges 2.3

But what does it profit me if, coming to prayer, I “should bend the knees” of my body “to God” and yet I “should bend the knees” of my heart to the Devil? For if “I shall not have stood firm against the tricks of the Devil” (Ephesians 6:11), I “have bent my knees” to the Devil. And if I shall not have “stood” firmly “against” anger, I “have bent my knees” to anger. And, similarly, if I shall not have firmly resisted lust, then I “have bent the knees” of my heart to lust. And in the case of every one of these single things that are contrary to God, I will seem to do this, just as those also did who “worshiped the Baals and abandoned the God of their fathers, who led them out of the land of Egypt” (Judges 2:11-12), unless “I shall have stood” firmly and bravely. So then, let us not think that, because we seem not to worship images, these things therefore do not pertain also to any of us. What each man worships in preference to the rest, what he admires and loves above all other things, this is God to him. In short, this is what God requires from man before all and above all things by his command: “You shall love the Lord your God with your whole heart and your whole soul and all your strength” (Deuteronomy 6:5), desiring in a certain manner to master for himself all the affections of the human mind in advance, and knowing that what someone “has loved with his whole heart” and “his whole soul” and “his whole strength,” this is God to him. — Origen, Homilies on Judges 2.3

And since we must add another reason, we shall remark that this very result was foretold by the prophets. Isaiah distinctly declares: Hearing you shall hear, and shall not understand; and seeing you shall see, and shall not perceive: for the heart of this people has become fat, etc. And let them explain why it was predicted to the Jews, that although they both heard and saw, they would not understand what was said, nor perceive what was seen as they ought. For it is indeed manifest, that when they beheld Jesus they did not see who He was; and when they heard Him, they did not understand from His words the divinity that was in Him, and which transferred God’s providential care, hitherto exercised over the Jews, to His converts from the heathen. – Origen, Against Celsus, book 2, chapter 8

The Jew continues his discourse thus: “How should we deem him to be a God, who not only in other respects, as was currently reported, performed none of his promises, but who also, after we had convicted him, and condemned him as deserving of punishment, was found attempting to conceal himself, and endeavouring to escape in a most disgraceful manner, and who was betrayed by those whom he called disciples? And yet,” he continues, “he who was a God could neither flee nor be led away a prisoner; and least of all could he be deserted and delivered up by those who had been his associates, and had shared all things in common, and had had him for their teacher, who was deemed to be a Saviour, and a son of the greatest God, and an angel.” To which we reply, that even we do not suppose the body of Jesus, which was then an object of sight and perception, to have been God. And why do I say His body? Nay, not even His soul, of which it is related, “My soul is exceeding sorrowful, even unto death.” But as, according to the Jewish manner of speaking, “I am the Lord, the God of all flesh,” and, “Before Me there was no God formed, neither shall there be after Me,” God is believed to be He who employs the soul and body of the prophet as an instrument…. – Origen, Against Celsus, book 2, chapter 9

The prophets, indeed, foretold what Christ should suffer, and set forth the reason why He should suffer. God therefore also knew what Christ would suffer; but where has he learned that those things which the Christ of God should suffer were most base and dishonourable? He goes on to explain what those most shameful and degrading things were which Christ suffered, in these words: “For what better was it for God to eat the flesh of sheep, or to drink vinegar and gall, than to feed on filth?” But God, according to us, did not eat the flesh of sheep; and while it may seem that Jesus ate, He did so only as possessing a body. – Origen, Against Celsus, book 7, chapter 13

As Celsus supposes that we uphold the doctrine of the resurrection in order that we may see and know God, he thus follows out his notions on the subject: “After they have been utterly refuted and vanquished, they still, as if regardless of all objections, come back again to the same question, ‘How then shall we see and know God? How shall we go to Him?” Let any, however, who are disposed to hear us observe, that if we have need of a body for other purposes, as for occupying a material locality to which this body must be adapted, and if on that account the “tabernacle” is clothed in the way we have shown, we have no need of a body in order to know God. For that which sees God is not the eye of the body; it is the mind which is made in the image of the Creator, and which God has in His providence rendered capable of that knowledge. To see God belongs to the pure heart, out of which no longer proceed “evil thoughts, murders, adulteries, fornications, thefts, false witness, blasphemies, the evil eye,” or any other evil thing. Wherefore it is said, “Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God.” But as the strength of our will is not sufficient to procure the perfectly pure heart, and as we need that God should create it, he therefore who prays as he ought, offers this petition to God, “Create in me a clean heart, O God.” – Against Celsus, book 7, chapter 33 

But Celsus, as if forgetting the language which he had just quoted from Plato, immediately gives God the name of “the unspeakable.” He says: “since the wise men have found out this way, in order to be able to give us some idea of the First of Beings, who is unspeakable.” For ourselves, we hold that not God alone is unspeakable, but other things also which are inferior to Him. Such are the things which Paul labours to express when he says, “I heard unspeakable words, which it is not lawful for a man to utter,” where the word “heard” is used in the sense of “understood”; as in the passage, “He who has ears to hear, let him hear.” We also hold that it is a hard matter to see the Creator and Father of the universe; but it is possible to see Him in the way thus referred to, “Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God”; and not only so, but also in the sense of the words of Him who is the image of the invisible God: “He who has seen Me has seen the Father who sent Me.” No sensible person could suppose that these last words were spoken in reference to His bodily presence, which was open to the view of all; otherwise all those who said, “Crucify him, crucify him,” and Pilate, who had power over the humanity of Jesus, were among those who saw God the Father, which is absurd. Moreover, that these words, “He that has seen Me, has seen the Father who sent Me,” are not to be taken in their grosser sense, is plain from the answer which He gave to Philip, “Have I been so long time with you, and yet do you not know Me, Philip?” after Philip had asked, “Show us the Father, and it suffices us.” He, then, who perceives how these words, “The Word was made flesh,” are to be understood of the only-begotten Son of God, the first-born of all creation, will also understand how, in seeing the image of the invisible God, we see the Creator and Father of the universe. – Origen, Against Celsus, book 7, chapter 43

Commodianus (250 AD)

When Almighty God, to beautify the nature of the world, willed that that earth should be visited by angels, when they were sent down they despised His laws. Such was the beauty of women, that it turned them aside; so that, being contaminated, they could not return to heaven. Rebels from God, they uttered words against Him. Then the Highest uttered His judgment against them; and from their seed giants are said to have been born. By them arts were made known in the earth, and they taught the dyeing of wool, and everything which is done; and to them, when they died, men erected images. But the Almighty, because they were of an evil seed, did not approve that, when dead, they should be brought back from death. Whence wandering they now subvert many bodies, and it is such as these especially that ye this day worship and pray to as gods. – Commodianus (250 AD) The Instructions of Commodianus in favour of Christian Discipline, Against the Gods of the Heathens Chapter 3

Cyprian of Carthage (250 AD):

Since, then, there is much difference between those who have sacrificed, what a want of mercy it is, and how bitter is the hardship, to associate those who have received certificates, with those who have sacrificed, when he by whom the certificate has been received may say, “I had previously read, and had been made aware by the discourse of the bishop, that we must not sacrifice to idols, that the servant of God ought not to worship images; and therefore, in order that I might not do this which was not lawful, when the opportunity of receiving a certificate was offered, which itself also I should not have received, unless the opportunity had been put before me, I either went or charged some other person going to the magistrate, to say that I am a Christian, that I am not allowed to sacrifice, that I cannot come to the devil’s altars, and that I pay a price for this purpose, that I may not do what is not lawful for me to do.” – Cyprian (250 AD) Epistle 51 To Antonianus About Cornelius and Novatian Chapter 14

Is the dignity of the Catholic Church, dearest brother, to be laid aside, is the faithful and uncorrupted majesty of the people placed within it, and the priestly authority and power also, all to be laid aside for this, that those who are set without the Church may say that they wish to judge concerning a prelate in the Church? Heretics concerning a Christian? Wounded men about a whole man? Maimed concerning a sound man? Lapsed concerning one who stands fast? Guilty concerning their judge? Sacrilegious men concerning a priest? What is left but that the Church should yield to the Capitol, and that, while the priests depart and remove the Lord’s altar, the images and idols should pass over with their altars into the sacred and venerable assembly of our clergy, and a larger and fuller material for declaiming against us and abusing us be afforded to Novatian; if they who have sacrificed and have publicly denied Christ should begin not only to be entreated and admitted without penance done, but, moreover, in addition, to domineer by the power of their terror? – Cyprian (250 AD) Epistle 54 To Cornelius, Concerning Fortunatus and Felicissimus, or Against the Heretics Chapter 18

Let us take these arms, let us fortify ourselves with these spiritual and heavenly safeguards, that in the most evil day we may be able to withstand, and to resist the threats of the devil: let us put on the breastplate of righteousness, that our breast may be fortified and safe against the darts of the enemy: let our feet be shod with evangelical teaching, and armed, so that when the serpent shall begin to be trodden and crushed by us, he may not be able to bite and trip us up: let us bravely bear the shield of faith, by the protection of which, whatever the enemy darts at us may be extinguished: let us take also for protection of our head the helmet of salvation, that our ears may be guarded from hearing the deadly edicts; that our eyes may be fortified, that they may not see the odious images; that our brow may be fortified, so as to keep safe the sign of God; that our mouth may be fortified, that the conquering tongue may confess Christ its Lord: let us also arm the right hand with the sword of the Spirit, that it may bravely reject the deadly sacrifices; that, mindful of the Eucharist, the hand which has received the Lord’s body may embrace the Lord Himself, hereafter to receive from the Lord the reward of heavenly crowns. – Cyprian (250 AD) Epistle 55 To the People of Thibaris, Exhorting to Martyrdom Chapter 9

It is not enough that you yourself do not worship God, but, over and above, you persecute those who do worship, with a sacrilegious hostility. You neither worship God, nor do you at all permit Him to be worshipped; and while others who venerate not only those foolish idols and images made by man’s hands, but even portents and monsters besides, are pleasing to you, it is only the worshipper of God who is displeasing to you. – Cyprian (250 AD) Treatise 5 An Address to Demetrianus Chapter 12

What, then, is that sluggishness of mind; yea, what blind and stupid madness of fools, to be unwilling to come out of darkness into light, and to be unwilling, when bound in the toils of eternal death, to receive the hope of immortality, and not to fear God when He threatens and says, “He that sacrifices unto any gods, but unto the Lord only, shall be rooted out?” And again: “They worshipped them whom their fingers made; and the mean man hath bowed down, and the great man hath humbled himself, and I will not forgive them.” Why do you humble and bend yourself to false gods? Why do you bow your body captive before foolish images and creations of earth? God made you upright; and while other animals are downlooking, and are depressed in posture bending towards the earth, yours is a lofty attitude; and your countenance is raised upwards to heaven, and to God. Look thither, lift your eyes thitherward, seek God in the highest, that you may be free from things below; lift your heart to a dependence on high and heavenly things. Why do you prostrate yourself into the ruin of death with the serpent whom you worship? Why do you fall into the destruction of the devil, by his means and in his company? Keep the lofty estate in which you were born. Continue such as you were made by God. To the posture of your countenance and of your body, conform your soul. That you may be able to know God, first know yourself. Forsake the idols which human error has invented. Be turned to God, whom if you implore He will aid you. Believe in Christ, whom the Father has sent to quicken and restore us. Cease to hurt the servants of God and of Christ with your persecutions, since when they are injured the divine vengeance defends them. – Cyprian (250 AD) Treatise 5 An Address to Demetrianus Chapter 16

Do you, however, whom the celestial warfare has enlisted in the spiritual camp, only observe a discipline uncorrupted and chastened in the virtues of religion. Be constant as well in prayer as in reading; now speak with God, now let God speak with you, let Him instruct you in His precepts, let Him direct you. Whom He has made rich, none shall make poor; for, in fact, there can be no poverty to him whose breast has once been supplied with heavenly food. Ceilings enriched with gold, and houses adorned with mosaics of costly marble, will seem mean to you, now when you know that it is you yourself who are rather to be perfected, you who are rather to be adorned, and that that dwelling in which God has dwelt as in a temple, in which the Holy Spirit has begun to make His abode, is of more importance than all others. Let us embellish this house with the colors of innocence, let us enlighten it with the light of justice: this will never fall into decay with the wear of age, nor shall it be defiled by the tarnishing of the colors of its walls, nor of its gold. Whatever is artificially beautified is perishing; and such things as contain not the reality of possession afford no abiding assurance to their possessors. But this remains in a beauty perpetually vivid, in perfect honour, in permanent splendour. It can neither decay nor be destroyed; it can only be fashioned into greater perfection when the body returns to it. – Cyprian, Letter 1, chapter 15

That those are no gods whom the common people worship, is known from this. They were formerly kings, who on account of their royal memory subsequently began to be adored by their people even in death. Thence temples were founded to them; thence images were sculptured to retain the countenances of the deceased by the likeness; and men sacrificed victims, and celebrated festal days, by way of giving them honour. Thence to posterity those rites became sacred which at first had been adopted as a consolation. And now let us see whether this truth is confirmed in individual instances. – Cyprian (250 AD) Treatise 6, Chapter 1

These spirits, therefore, are lurking under the statues and consecrated images: these inspire the breasts of their prophets with their afflatus, animate the fibres of the entrails, direct the flights of birds, rule the lots, give efficiency to oracles, are always mixing up falsehood with truth, for they are both deceived and they deceive; they disturb their life, they disquiet their slumbers; their spirits creeping also into their bodies, secretly terrify their minds, distort their limbs, break their health, excite diseases to force them to worship of themselves, so that when glutted with the steam of the altars and the piles of cattle, they may unloose what they had bound, and so appear to have effected a cure. The only remedy from them is when their own mischief ceases; nor have they any other desire than to call men away from God, and to turn them from the understanding of the true religion, to superstition with respect to themselves; and since they themselves are under punishment, (they wish) to seek for themselves companions in punishment whom they may by their misguidance make sharers in their crime. These, however, when adjured by us through the true God, at once yield and confess, and are constrained to go out from the bodies possessed. – Cyprian (250 AD) Treatise 6, Chapter 7

But what and how great is the patience in God, that, most patiently enduring the profane temples and the images of earth, and the sacrilegious rites instituted by men, in contempt of His majesty and honour, He makes the day to begin and the light of the sun to arise alike upon the good and the evil; and while He waters the earth with showers, no one is excluded from His benefits, but upon the righteous equally with the unrighteous He bestows His undiscriminating rains. – Cyprian (250 AD) Treatise 9, Chapter 4

And the rest of the men who were not slain by these plagues, nor repented of the works of the deeds of their hands, that they should not worship demons and idols, that is, images of gold, and of silver, and of brass, and of stone, and of wood, which can neither see nor walk, repented not also of their murders. – Cyprian (250 AD) Treatise 12, Chapter 59

2. He, among the rest of His salutary admonitions and divine precepts wherewith He counsels His people for their salvation, Himself also gave a form of praying— Himself advised and instructed us what we should pray for. He who made us to live, taught us also to pray, with that same benignity, to wit, wherewith He has condescended to give and confer all things else; in order that while we speak to the Father in that prayer and supplication which the Son has taught us, we may be the more easily heard. Already He had foretold that the hour was coming when the true worshippers should worship the Father in spirit and in truth (John 4:23); and He thus fulfilled what He before promised, so that we who by His sanctification have received the Spirit and truth, may also by His teaching worship truly and spiritually. For what can be a more spiritual prayer than that which was given to us by Christ, by whom also the Holy Spirit was given to us? What praying to the Father can be more truthful than that which was delivered to us by the Son who is the Truth, out of His own mouth? So that to pray otherwise than He taught is not ignorance alone, but also sin; since He Himself has established, and said, You reject the commandments of God, that you may keep your own traditions. – Cyprian, Treatise 4, chapter 4

Novatian (200 – 258 AD):

Concerning Him, therefore, and concerning those things which are of Himself, and are in Him, neither can the mind of man worthily conceive what they are, how great they are, and what they are like; nor does the eloquence of human discourse set forth a power that approaches the level of His majesty. For to conceive and to speak of His majesty, as well all eloquence is with reason mute, as all mind poor. For He is greater than mind itself; nor can it be conceived how great He is, seeing that, if He could be conceived, He would be smaller than the human mind wherein He could be conceived. He is greater, moreover, than all discourse, nor can He be declared; for if He could be declared, He would be less than human discourse, whereby being declared, He can both be encompassed and contained. For whatever could be thought concerning Him must be less than Himself; and whatever could be declared must be less than He, when compared in respect of Himself. Moreover, we can in some degree be conscious of Him in silence, but we cannot in discourse unfold Him as He is. For should you call Him Light, you would be speaking of His creature rather than of Himself — you would not declare Him; or should you call Him Strength, you would rather be speaking of and bringing out His power than speaking of Himself; or should you call Him Majesty, you would rather be describing His honour than Himself. And why should I make a long business of going through His attributes one by one? I will at once unfold the whole. Whatever in any respect you might declare of Him, you would rather be unfolding some condition and power of His than Himself.

Thus man may know, to some extent, how great God is, while he learns to fear Him through the spirit given to him. Ever desiring to become more completely known to us and to incite our minds to His worship, He said: “I am the Lord who made the light and created the darkness,” that we may not think that a certain “nature”—I know not what—was the artificer of those alternations whereby the nights and days are regulated; but rather, and with greater truth, we may acknowledge God as their Creator. Since we cannot see Him with the sight of our eyes, we learn to know Him from the greatness, the power, and the majesty of His works. “For since the creation of the world,” says the Apostle, “His invisible attributes are clearly seen—His everlasting power also and divinity—being understood through the things that are made. Thus the human mind, learning to know the hidden things from those which are manifest, may consider in spirit the greatness of the Maker from the greatness of His works which it sees with the eyes of the mind. – Novatian, On The Trinity, chapter 3

If Christ is only man, how is He present wherever He is invoked —since it is not man’s nature but God’s to be able to be present everywhere? If Christ is only man, why is a man called upon in prayer as a mediator, when calling upon a man to grant salvation is considered useless? If Christ is only man, why is hope put in Him,’° when hope in man is declared to be ac-cursed?” – Novatian on the Trinity, Chapter 14

Valentine of Terni (269 AD):

To this St. Valentine replied, “I am surprised that you, a careful teacher, did not attend to what I said: ‘If you wish, he will be cured.’ For, if you have believed in my Christ, your faith is more valuable to God than yourself, who are spending your life in the most trivial and pointless things, believing that the idols of wicked men, portrayed in wood or in some metal, have some kind of divinity, which they have in their own right. But these days, when those who were engaged in the most sordid and cruel deeds cannot be believed in [as gods any longer], at no time have they been free from wickedness. But if you could hold that faith, as I suggest, after this injury, and trust to the invisible and omnipotent God, health will be given to your son, as you are requesting. But your wealth, half of which you wanted to promise to me, you must give to the poor to pray for your son. By no means will you be able to convince me to accept anything else for his health, than the faith I seek for. Believe then that the son of God is truly God, Jesus Christ, and renounce all images (simulacris), and you will see your son healed.” – The “Life” of St Valentine of Terni, chapter 3

St. Valentine the bishop said, “The Christian faith is not just words but is also revealed in actions.” Crato said to him, “What are the works by which faith can be shown?” St. Valentine, the bishop said, “To repudiate idols made by hands, whose image is worshipped in the temples, and to be washed from all sin in the purest spring, and to be adopted by the son of God.” – The “Life” of St Valentine of Terni, chapter 5

Methodius (300 AD):

And those artificers who, to the destruction of men, make images in human form, not perceiving and knowing their own Maker, are blamed by the Word, which says, in the Book of Wisdom, a book full of all virtue, “his heart is ashes, his hope is more vile than earth, and his life of less value than clay; forasmuch as he knew not his Maker, and Him that inspired into him an active soul, and breathed in a living spirit;” – Methodius (260-321 AD) Banquet of the Ten Virgins, Discourse 2, chapter 7

Do the scriptures contradict themselves, or do the prophets disagree with the law? But rather the Lord’s books agree among themselves to praise him worthily and to send us into one and the same knowledge and life, and one hope that is to come, if the veil of the scriptures is drawn aside. It is impossible for it to be drawn aside, unless we turn to the Lord Jesus Christ. And so with an uncovered face we shall know his glory, which is proclaimed in the old books, not making him a house of ivory and gold (for this is not what the prophet commands). If the Jews are in error about Christ in this way, we know that the Deity takes no pleasure in the dead wiles of human ingenuity, but in those things which are living and never decay. The “towers” are the spiritual bodies, in whom the Lord rejoices, seeing them without sin in the resurrection. Therefore he calls our bodies towers of ivory, which are sanctified with good works as if with ivory, and they shall receive the kingdom, and God is glad of them, as the prophet says, “I was glad when they said to me, Let us go to the house of the Lord.” – Methodius (260-321 AD), On the Distinction Between Foods (De Cibis), chapter 8.5-8.7.

Arnobius (305 AD):

But lately, O blindness, I worshipped images produced from the furnace, gods made on anvils and by hammers, the bones of elephants, paintings, wreaths on aged trees; whenever I espied an anointed stone and one bedaubed with olive oil, as if some power resided in it I worshipped it, I addressed myself to it and begged blessings from a senseless stock. And these very gods of whose existence I had convinced myself, I treated with gross insults, when I believed them to be wood, stone, and bones, or imagined that they dwelt in the substance of such objects. Now, having been led into the paths of truth by so great a teacher, I know what all these things are, I entertain honourable thoughts concerning those which are worthy, I offer no insult to any divine name; and what is due to each, whether inferior or superior, I assign with clearly-defined gradations, and on distinct authority. Is Christ, then, not to be regarded by us as God? and is He, who in other respects may be deemed the very greatest, not to be honoured with divine worship, from whom we have already received while alive so great gifts, and from whom, when the day comes, we expect greater ones? – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 1 Chapter 39

Was it for this He sent souls, that, being made unmindful of the truth, and forgetful of what God was, they should make supplication to images which cannot move; address as superhuman deities pieces of wood, brass, and stones; ask aid of them with the blood of slain animals; make no mention of Himself: nay more, that some of them should doubt their own existence, or deny altogether that anything exists? – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 2 Chapter 39

Inasmuch then, you say, as you serve the Almighty God, and trust that He cares for your safety and salvation, why does He suffer you to be exposed to such storms of persecution, and to undergo all kinds of punishments and tortures? Let us, too, ask in reply, why, seeing that you worship so great and so innumerable gods, and build temples to them, fashion images of gold, sacrifice herds of animals, and all heap up boxfuls of incense on the already loaded altars, why you live subject to so many dangers and storms of calamity, with which many fatal misfortunes vex you every day? Why, I say, do your gods neglect to avert from you so many kinds of disease and sickness, shipwrecks, downfalls, conflagrations, pestilences, barrenness, loss of children, and confiscation of goods, discords, wars, enmities, captures of cities, and the slavery of those who are robbed of their rights of free birth? But, my opponent says, in such mischances we, too, are in no wise helped by God. The cause is plain and manifest. For no hope has been held out to us with respect to this life, nor has any help been promised or aid decreed us for what belongs to the husk of this flesh,—nay, more, we have been taught to esteem and value lightly all the threats of fortune, whatever they be; and if ever any very grievous calamity has assailed us, to count as pleasant in that misfortune the end which must follow, and not to fear or flee from it, that we may be the more easily released from the bonds of the body, and escape from our darkness and blindness. – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 2 Chapter 76

But do not seek to point out to us pictures instead of gods in your temples, and the images which you set up, for you too know, but are unwilling and refuse to admit, that these are formed of most worthless clay, and are childish figures made by mechanics. And when we converse with you on religion, we ask you to prove this, that there are other gods than the one Supreme Deity in nature, power, name, not as we see them manifested in images, but in such a substance as it might fittingly be supposed that perfection of so great dignity should reside. – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 3 Chapter 3

Is this the contempt you entertain,—this the proud wisdom with which you spurn us as ignorant, and think that all knowledge of religion is yours? You mock the mysteries of the Egyptians, because they ingrafted the forms of dumb animals upon their divine causes, and because they worship these very images with much incense, and whatever else is used in such rites: you yourselves adore images of men, as though they were powerful gods, and are not ashamed to give to these the countenance of an earthly creature, to blame others for their mistaken folly, and to be detected in a similarly vicious error. – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 3 Chapter 15

Having shown briefly how impious and infamous are the opinions which you have formed about your gods, we have now to speak of their temples, their images also, and sacrifices, and of the other things which are united and closely related to them. For you are here in the habit of fastening upon us a very serious charge of impiety because we do not rear temples for the ceremonies of worship, do not set up statues and images of any god, do not build altars, do not offer the blood of creatures slain in sacrifices, incense, nor sacrificial meal, and finally, do not bring wine flowing in libations from sacred bowls; which, indeed, we neglect to build and do, not as though we cherish impious and wicked dispositions, or have conceived any madly desperate feeling of contempt for the gods, but because we think and believe that they—if only they are true gods, and are called by this exalted name—either scorn such honours, if they give way to scorn, or endure them with anger, if they are roused by feelings of rage. – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 1

But, we are told, we rear no temples to them, and do not worship their images; we do not slay victims in sacrifice, we do not offer incense and libations of wine. And what greater honour or dignity can we ascribe to them, than that we put them in the same position as the Head and Lord of the universe, to whom the gods owe it in common with us, that they are conscious that they exist, and have a living being? For do we honour Him with shrines, and by building temples? Do we even slay victims to Him? Do we give Him the other things, to take which and pour them forth in libation shows not a careful regard to reason, but heed to a practice maintained merely by usage? For it is perfect folly to measure greater powers by your necessities, and to give the things useful to yourself to the gods who give all things, and to think this an honour, not an insult. We ask, therefore, to do what service to the gods, or to meet what want, do you say that temples have been reared, and think that they should be again built? Do they feel the cold of winter, or are they scorched by summer suns? Do storms of rain flow over them, or whirlwinds shake them? Are they in danger of being exposed to the onset of enemies, or the furious attacks of wild beasts, so that it is right and becoming to shut them up in places of security, or guard them by throwing up a rampart of stones? For what are these temples? If you ask human weakness—something vast and spacious; if you consider the power of the gods—small caves, as it were, and even, to speak more truly, the narrowest kind of caverns formed and contrived with sorry judgment. Now, if you ask to be told who was their first founder and builder, either Phoroneus or the Egyptian Merops will be mentioned to you, or, as Varro relates in his treatise “de Admirandis,” Æacus the offspring of Jupiter. Though these, then, should be built of heaps of marble, or shine resplendent with ceilings fretted with gold, though precious stones sparkle here, and gleam like stars set at varying intervals, all these things are made up of earth, and of the lowest dregs of even baser matter. For not even, if you value these more highly, is it to be believed that the gods take pleasure in them, or that they do not refuse and scorn to shut themselves up, and be confined within these barriers. This, my opponent says, is the temple of Mars, this that of Juno and of Venus, this that of Hercules, of Apollo, of Dis. What is this but to say this is the house of Mars, this of Juno and Venus, Apollo dwells here, in this abides Hercules, in that Summanus? Is it not, then, the very greatest affront to hold the gods kept fast in habitations, to give to them little huts, to build lockfast places and cells, and to think that the things are necessary to them which are needed by men, cats, emmets, and lizards, by quaking, timorous, and little mice? – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 3

We have therefore—as I suppose—shown sufficiently, that to the immortal gods temples have been either reared in vain, or built in consequence of insulting opinions held to their dishonour and to the belittling of the power believed to be in their hands. We have next to say something about statues and images, which you form with much skill, and tend with religious care,—wherein if there is any credibility, we can by no amount of consideration settle in our own minds whether you do this in earnest and with a serious purpose, or amuse yourselves in childish dreams by mocking at these very things. For if you are assured that the gods exist whom you suppose, and that they live in the highest regions of heaven, what cause, what reason, is there that those images should be fashioned by you, when you have true beings to whom you may pour forth prayers, and from whom you may ask help in trying circumstances? But if, on the contrary, you do not believe, or, to speak with moderation, are in doubt, in this case, also, what reason is there, pray, to fashion and set up images of doubtful beings, and to form with vain imitation what you do not believe to exist? Do you perchance say, that under these images of deities there is displayed to you their presence, as it were, and that, because it has not been given you to see the gods, they are worshipped in this fashion, and the duties owed to them paid? He who says and asserts this, does not believe that the gods exist; and he is proved not to put faith in his own religion, to whom it is necessary to see what he may hold, lest that which being obscure is not seen, may happen to be vain. – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 8

We worship the gods, you say, by means of images. What then? Without these, do the gods not know that they are worshipped, and will they not think that any honour is shown to them by you? Through bypaths, as it were, then, and by assignments to a third party, as they are called, they receive and accept your services; and before those to whom that service is owed experience it, you first sacrifice to images, and transmit, as it were, some remnants to them at the pleasure of others. And what greater wrong, disgrace, hardship, can be inflicted than to acknowledge one god, and yet make supplication to something else—to hope for help from a deity, and pray to an image without feeling? Is not this, I pray you, that which is said in the common proverbs: “to cut down the smith when you strike at the fuller;” “and when you seek a man’s advice, to require of asses and pigs their opinions as to what should be done?” – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 9

And whence, finally, do you know whether all these images which you form and put in the place of the immortal gods reproduce and bear a resemblance to the gods? For it may happen that in heaven one has a beard who by you is represented with smooth cheeks; that another is rather advanced in years to whom you give the appearance of a youth; that here he is fair, with blue eyes, who really has grey ones; that he has distended nostrils whom you make and form with a high nose. For it is not right to call or name that an image which does not derive from the face of the original features like it; which can be recognised to be clear and certain from things which are manifest. For while all we men see that the sun is perfectly round by our eyesight, which cannot be doubted, you have given to him the features of a man, and of mortal bodies. The moon is always in motion, and in its restoration every month puts on thirty faces: with you, as leaders and designers, that is represented as a woman, and has one countenance, which passes through a thousand different states, changing each day. We understand that all the winds are only a flow of air driven and impelled in mundane ways: in your hands they take the forms of men filling with breath twisted trumpets by blasts from out their breasts. Among the representations of your gods we see that there is the very stern face of a lion smeared with pure vermilion, and that it is named Frugifer. If all these images are likenesses of the gods above, there must then be said to dwell in heaven also a god such as the image which has been made to represent his form and appearance; and, of course, as here that figure of yours, so there the deity himself is a mere mask and face, without the rest of the body, growling with fiercely gaping jaws, terrible, red as blood, holding an apple fast with his teeth, and at times, as dogs do when wearied, putting his tongue out of his gaping mouth. But if, indeed, this is not the case, as we all think that it is not, what, pray, is the meaning of so great audacity to fashion to yourself whatever form you please, and to say that it is an image of a god whom you cannot prove to exist at all? – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 10

You laugh because in ancient times the Persians worshipped rivers, as is told in the writings which hand down these things to memory; the Arabians an unshapen stone; the Scythian nations a sabre; the Thespians a branch instead of Cinxia; the Icarians an unhewn log instead of Diana; the people of Pessinus a flint instead of the mother of the gods; the Romans a spear instead of Mars, as the muses of Varro point out; and, before they were acquainted with the statuary’s art, the Samians a plank instead of Juno, as Aëthlius relates: and you do not laugh when, instead of the immortal gods, you make supplication to little images of men and human forms—nay, you even suppose that these very little images are gods, and besides these you do not believe that anything has divine power. – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 11

To such an extent is there wantonness and childish feeling in forming those little images, adoring them as gods, heaping upon them the divine virtues, when we see that the artists themselves find amusement in fashioning them, and set them up as monuments of their own lusts! For what reason is there, if you should inquire, why Phidias should hesitate to amuse himself, and be wanton when he knew that, but a little before, the very Jupiter which he had made was gold, stones, and ivory, formless, separated, confused, and that it was he himself who brought all these together and bound them fast, that their appearance had been given to them by himself in the imitation of limbs which he had carved; and, which is more than all, that it was his own free gift, that Jupiter had been produced and was adored among men? – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 13

Those images which fill you with terror, and which you adore prostrate upon the ground in all the temples, are bones, stones, brass, silver, gold, clay, wood taken from a tree, or glue mixed with gypsum. Having been heaped together, it may be, from a harlot’s gauds or from a woman’s ornaments, from camels’ bones or from the tooth of the Indian beast, from cooking-pots and little jars, from candlesticks and lamps, or from other less cleanly vessels, and having been melted down, they were cast into these shapes and came out into the forms which you see, baked in potters’ furnaces, produced by anvils and hammers, scraped with the silversmith’s, and filed down with ordinary files, cleft and hewn with saws, with augers, with axes, dug and hollowed out by the turning of borers, and smoothed with planes. Is not this, then, an error? Is it not, to speak accurately, folly to believe that a god which you yourself made with care, to kneel down trembling in supplication to that which has been formed by you, and while you know, and are assured that it is the product of the labour of your hands,—to cast yourself down upon your face, beg aid suppliantly, and, in adversity and time of distress, ask it to succour you with gracious and divine favour? – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 14

Lo, if some one were to place before you copper in the lump, and not formed into any works of art, masses of unwrought silver, and gold not fashioned into shape, wood, stones, and bones, with all the other materials of which statues and images of deities usually consist,—nay, more, if some one were to place before you the faces of battered gods, images melted down and broken, and were also to bid you slay victims to the bits and fragments, and give sacred and divine honours to masses without form,—we ask you to say to us, whether you would do this, or refuse to obey. Perhaps you will say, why? Because there is no man so stupidly blind that he will class among the gods silver, copper, gold, gypsum, ivory, potter’s clay, and say that these very things have, and possess in themselves, divine power. What reason is there, then, that all these bodies should want the power of deity and the rank of celestials if they remain untouched and unwrought, but should forthwith become gods, and be classed and numbered among the inhabitants of heaven if they receive the forms of men, ears, noses, cheeks, lips, eyes, and eyebrows? Does the fashioning add any newness to these bodies, so that from this addition you are compelled to believe that something divine and majestic has been united to them? Does it change copper into gold, or compel worthless earthenware to become silver? Does it cause things which but a little before were without feeling, to live and breathe? If they had any natural properties previously, all these they retain when built up in the bodily forms of statues. What stupidity it is—for I refuse to call it blindness—to suppose that the natures of things are changed by the kind of form into which they are forced, and that that receives divinity from the appearance given to it, which in its original body has been inert, and unreasoning, and unmoved by feeling! – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 15

And so unmindful and forgetful of what the substance and origin of the images are, you, men, rational beings and endowed with the gift of wisdom and discretion, sink down before pieces of baked earthenware, adore plates of copper, beg from the teeth of elephants good health, magistracies, sovereignties, power, victories, acquisitions, gains, very good harvests, and very rich vintages; and while it is plain and clear that you are speaking to senseless things, you think that you are heard, and bring yourselves into disgrace of your own accord, by vainly and credulously deceiving yourselves. Oh, would that you might enter into some statue! Rather, would that you might separate and break up into parts those Olympian and Capitoline Jupiters, and behold all those parts alone and by themselves which make up the whole of their bodies! You would at once see that these gods of yours, to whom the smoothness of their exterior gives a majestic appearance by its alluring brightness, are only a framework of flexible plates, particles without shape joined together; that they are kept from falling into ruin and fear of destruction, by dove-tails and clamps and brace-irons; and that lead is run into the midst of all the hollows and where the joints meet, and causes delay useful in preserving them. You would see, I say, at once that they have faces only without the rest of the head, imperfect hands without arms, bellies and sides in halves, incomplete feet, and, which is most ridiculous, that they have been put together without uniformity in the construction of their bodies, being in one part made of wood, but in the other of stone. Now, indeed, if these things could not be seen through the skill with which they were kept out of sight, even those at least which lie open to all should have taught and instructed you that you are effecting nothing, and giving your services in vain to dead things. For, in this case, do you not see that these images, which seem to breathe, whose feet and knees you touch and handle when praying, at times fall into ruins from the constant dropping of rain, at other times lose the firm union of their parts from their decaying and becoming rotten,—how they grow black, being fumigated and discoloured by the steam of sacrifices, and by smoke,—how with continued neglect they lose their position and appearance, and are eaten away with rust? In this case, I say, do you not see that newts, shrews, mice, and cockroaches, which shun the light, build their nests and live under the hollow parts of these statues? that they gather carefully into these all kinds of filth, and other things suited to their wants, hard and half-gnawed bread, bones dragged thither in view of probable scarcity, rags, down, and pieces of paper to make their nests soft, and keep their young warm? Do you not see sometimes over the face of an image cobwebs and treacherous nets spun by spiders, that they may be able to entangle in them buzzing and imprudent flies while on the wing? Do you not see, finally, that swallows full of filth, flying within the very domes of the temples, toss themselves about, and bedaub now the very faces, now the mouths of the deities, the beard, eyes, noses, and all the other parts on which their excrements4706 fall? Blush, then, even though it is late, and accept true methods and views from dumb creatures, and let these teach you that there is nothing divine in images, into which they do not fear or scruple to cast unclean things in obedience to the laws of their being, and led by their unerring instincts. – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 16

“But you err,” says my opponent, “and are mistaken, for we do not consider either copper, or gold and silver, or those other materials of which statues are made, to be in themselves gods and sacred deities; but in them we worship and venerate those whom their dedication as sacred introduces and causes to dwell in statues made by workmen.” The reasoning is not vicious nor despicable by which any one—the dull, and also the most intelligent—can believe that the gods, forsaking their proper seats—that is, heaven—do not shrink back and avoid entering earthly habitations; nay, more, that impelled by the rite of dedication, they are joined to images! Do your gods, then, dwell in gypsum and in figures of earthenware? Nay, rather, are the gods the minds, spirits, and souls of figures of earthenware and of gypsum? and, that the meanest things may be able to become of greater importance, do they suffer themselves to be shut up and concealed and confined in an obscure abode? Here, then, in the first place, we wish and ask to be told this by you: do they do this against their will—that is, do they enter the images as dwellings, dragged to them by the rite of dedication—or are they ready and willing? and do you not summon them by any considerations of necessity? Do they do this unwillingly? and how can it be possible that they should be compelled to submit to any necessity without their dignity being impaired? With ready assent? And what do the gods seek for in figures of earthenware that they should prefer these prisons to their starry seats,—that, having been all but fastened to them, they should ennoble earthenware and the other substances of which images are made? – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 17

What then? Do the gods remain always in such substances, and do they not go away to any place, even though summoned by the most momentous affairs? or do they have free passage, when they please to go any whither, and to leave their own seats and images? If they are under the necessity of remaining, what can be more wretched than they, what more unfortunate than if hooks and leaden bonds hold them fast in this wise on their pedestals? but if we allow that they prefer these images to heaven and the starry seats, they have lost their divine power. But if, on the contrary, when they choose, they fly forth, and are perfectly free to leave the statues empty, the images will then at some time cease to be gods, and it will be doubtful when sacrifices should be offered,—when it is right and fitting to withhold them. Oftentimes we see that by artists these images are at one time made small, and reduced to the size of the hand, at another raised to an immense height, and built up to a wonderful size. In this way, then, it follows that we should understand that the gods contract themselves in little statuettes, and are compressed till they become like a strange body; or, again, that they stretch themselves out to a great length, and extend to immensity in images of vast bulk. So, then, if this is the case, in sitting statues also the gods should be said to be seated, and in standing ones to stand, to be running in those stretching forward to run, to be hurling javelins in those represented as casting them, to fit and fashion themselves to their countenances, and to make themselves like the other characteristics of the body formed by the artist. – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 18

The gods dwell in images—each wholly in one, or divided into parts, and into members? For neither is it possible that there can be at one time one god in several images, nor, again, divided into parts by his being cut up. For let us suppose that there are ten thousand images of Vulcan in the whole world: is it possible at all, as I said, that at one time one deity can be in all the ten thousand? I do not think so. Do you ask wherefore? Because things which are naturally single and unique, cannot become many while the integrity of their simplicity is maintained. And this they are further unable to become if the gods have the forms of men, as your belief declares; for either a hand separated from the head, or a foot divided from the body, cannot manifest the perfection of the whole, or it must be said that parts can be the same as the whole, while the whole cannot exist unless it has been made by gathering together its parts. Moreover, if the same deity shall be said to be in all the statues, all reasonableness and soundness is lost to the truth, if this is assumed that at one time one can remain in them all; or each of the gods must be said to divide himself from himself, so that he is both himself and another, not separated by any distinction, but himself the same as another. But as nature rejects and spurns and scorns this, it must either be said and confessed that there are Vulcans without number, if we decide that he exists and is in all the images; or he will be in none, because he is prevented by nature from being divided among several. – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 19

And yet, O you—if it is plain and clear to you that the gods live, and that the inhabitants of heaven dwell in the inner parts of the images, why do you guard, protect, and keep them shut up under the strongest keys, and under fastenings of immense size, under iron bars, bolts, and other such things, and defend them with a thousand men and a thousand women to keep guard, lest by chance some thief or nocturnal robber should creep in? Why do you feed dogs in the capitols? Why do you give food and nourishment to geese? Rather, if you are assured that the gods are there, and that they do not depart to any place from their figures and images, leave to them the care of themselves, let their shrines be always unlocked and open; and if anything is secretly carried off by any one with reckless fraud, let them show the might of divinity, and subject the sacrilegious robbers to fitting punishments at the moment of their theft and wicked deed. For it is unseemly, and subversive of their power and majesty, to entrust the guardianship of the highest deities to the care of dogs, and when you are seeking for some means of frightening thieves so as to keep them away, not to beg it from the gods themselves, but to set and place it in the cackling of geese. – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 20

They say that Antiochus of Cyzicum took from its shrine a statue of Jupiter made of gold ten cubits high, and set up in its place one made of copper covered with thin plates of gold. If the gods are present, and dwell in their own images, with what business, with what cares, had Jupiter been entangled that he could not punish the wrong done to himself, and avenge his being substituted in baser metal? When the famous Dionysius—but it was the younger—despoiled Jupiter of his golden vestment, and put instead of it one of wool, and, when mocking him with pleasantries also, he said that that which he was taking away was cold in the frosts of winter, this warm, that that one was cumbrous in summer, that this, again, was airy in hot weather,—where was the king of the world that he did not show his presence by some terrible deed, and recall the jocose buffoon to soberness by bitter torments? For why should I mention that the dignity of Æsculapius was mocked by him? For when Dionysius was spoiling him of his very ample beard, which was of great weight and philosophic thickness, he said that it was not right that a son sprung from Apollo, a father smooth and beardless, and very like a mere boy, should be formed with such a beard that it was left uncertain which of them was father, which son, or rather whether they were of the same race and family. Now, when all these things were being done, and the robber was speaking with impious mockery, if the deity was concealed in the statue consecrated to his name and majesty, why did he not punish with just and merited vengeance the affront of stripping his face of its beard and disfiguring his countenance, and show by this, both that he was himself present, and that he kept watch over his temples and images without ceasing? – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 21

But you will perhaps say that the gods do not trouble themselves about these losses, and do not think that there is sufficient cause for them to come forth and inflict punishment upon the offenders for their impious sacrilege. Neither, then, if this is the case, do they wish to have these images, which they allow to be plucked up and torn away with impunity; nay, on the contrary, they tell us plainly that they despise these statues, in which they do not care to show that they were contemned, by taking any revenge. Philostephanus relates in his Cypriaca, that Pygmalion, king of Cyprus, loved as a woman an image of Venus, which was held by the Cyprians holy and venerable from ancient times, his mind, spirit, the light of his reason, and his judgment being darkened; and that he was wont in his madness, just as if he were dealing with his wife, having raised the deity to his couch, to be joined with it in embraces and face to face, and to do other vain things, carried away by a foolishly lustful imagination. Similarly, Posidippus, in the book which he mentions to have been written about Gnidus and about its affairs, relates that a young man, of noble birth,—but he conceals his name,—carried away with love of the Venus because of which Gnidus is famous, joined himself also in amorous lewdness to the image of the same deity, stretched on the genial couch, and enjoying the pleasures which ensue. To ask, again, in like manner: If the powers of the gods above lurk in copper and the other substances of which images have been formed, where in the world was the one Venus and the other to drive far away from them the lewd wantonness of the youths, and punish their impious touch with terrible suffering? Or, as the goddesses are gentle and of calmer dispositions, what would it have been for them to assuage the furious joys of the wretched men, and to bring back their insane minds again to their senses? – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 22

Here also the advocates of images are wont to say this also, that the ancients knew well that images have no divine nature, and that there is no sense in them, but that they formed them profitably and wisely, for the sake of the unmanageable and ignorant mob, which is the majority in nations and in states, in order that a kind of appearance, as it were, of deities being presented to them, from fear they might shake off their rude natures, and, supposing that they were acting in the presence of the gods, put away their impious deeds, and, changing their manners, learn to act as men; and that august forms of gold and silver were sought for them, for no other reason than that some power was believed to reside in their splendour, such as not only to dazzle the eyes, but even to strike terror into the mind itself at the majestic beaming lustre. Now this might perhaps seem to be said with some reason, if, after the temples of the gods were founded, and their images set up, there were no wicked man in the world, no villany at all, if justice, peace, good faith, possessed the hearts of men, and no one on earth were called guilty and guiltless, all being ignorant of wicked deeds. But now when, on the contrary, all things are full of wicked men, the name of innocence has almost perished, and every moment, every second, evil deeds, till now unheard of, spring to light in myriads from the wickedness of wrongdoers, how is it right to say that images have been set up for the purpose of striking terror into the mob, while, besides innumerable forms of crime and wickedness, we see that even the temples themselves are attacked by tyrants, by kings, by robbers, and by nocturnal thieves, and that these very gods whom antiquity fashioned and consecrated to cause terror, are carried away into the caves of robbers, in spite even of the terrible splendour of the gold? – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 24

Would it not have been better to dance and to sing, than calling it gravity and pretending to be serious, to relate what is so insipid and so silly, that images were formed by the ancients to check wrongdoing, and to arouse the fears of the wicked and impious? Were the men of that age and time, in understanding, so void of reason and good sense, that they were kept back from wicked actions, just as if they were little boys, by the preternatural savageness of masks, by grimaces also, and bugbears? And how has this been so entirely changed, that though there are so many temples in your states filled with images of all the gods, the multitude of criminals cannot be resisted even with so many laws and so terrible punishments, and their audacity cannot be overcome by any means, and wicked deeds, repeated again and again, multiply the more it is striven by laws and severe judgments to lessen the number of cruel deeds, and to quell them by the check given by means of punishments? But if images caused any fear to men, the passing of laws would cease, nor would so many kinds of tortures be established against the daring of the guilty: now, however, because it has been proved and established that the supposed terror which is said to flow out from the images is in reality vain, recourse has been had to the ordinances of laws, by which there might be a dread of punishment which should be most certain fixed in men’s minds also, and a condemnation settled; to which these very images also owe it that they yet stand safe, and secured by some respect being yielded to them. – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 6 Chapter 26

Since it has been sufficiently shown, as far as there has been opportunity, how vain it is to form images, the course of our argument requires that we should next speak as briefly as possible, and without any periphrasis, about sacrifices, about the slaughter and immolation of victims, about pure wine, about incense, and about all the other things which are provided on such occasions. For with respect to this you have been in the habit of exciting against us the most violent ill-will, of calling us atheists, and inflicting upon us the punishment of death, even by savagely tearing us to pieces with wild beasts, on the ground that we pay very little respect to the gods; which, indeed, we admit that we do, not from contempt or scorn of the divine, but because we think that such powers require nothing of the kind, and are not possessed by desires for such things. What, then, some one will say, do you think that no sacrifices at all should be offered? To answer you not with our own, but with your Varro’s opinion—none. Why so? Because, he says, the true gods neither wish nor demand these; while those which are made of copper, earthenware, gypsum, or marble, care much less for these things, for they have no feeling; and you are not blamed if you do not offer them, nor do you win favour if you do. No sounder opinion can be found, none truer, and one which any one may adopt, although he may be stupid and very hard to convince. For who is so obtuse as either to slay victims in sacrifice to those who have no sense, or to think that they should be given to those who are removed far from them in their nature and blessed state? – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 7 Chapter 1

And yet, that we may see the nature of what is said, what kind of honour is this, to bind a wether, a ram, a bull before the face of a god, and slay them in his sight? What kind of honour is it to invite a god to a banquet of blood, which you see him take and share in with dogs? What kind of honour is it, having set on fire piles of wood, to hide the heavens with smoke, and darken with gloomy blackness the images of the gods? But if it seems good to you that these actions should be considered in themselves, not judged of according to your prejudices, you will find that those altars of which you speak, and even those beautiful ones which you dedicate to the superior gods, are places for burning the unhappy race of animals, funeral pyres, and mounds built for a most unseemly office, and formed to be filled with corruption. – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 7 Chapter 15

Finally, that we may always abide by the rule and definition by which it has been shown and determined that whatever is done by man must have its causes, we will hold it fast here also, so as to demand of you what is the cause, what the reason, that incense is put on the altars before the very images of the deities, and that, from its being burned, they are supposed to become friendly and gentle. What do they acquire from this being done, or what reaches their minds, so that we should be right in judging that these things are well expended, and are not consumed uselessly and in vain? For as you should show why you give incense to the gods, so, too, it follows that you should manifest that the gods have some reason for not rejecting it with disdain, nay more, for desiring it so fondly. We honour the gods with this, some one will perhaps say. But we are not inquiring what your feeling is, but the gods’; nor do we ask what is done by you, but how much they value what is done to purchase their favour. But yet, O piety, what or how great is this honour which is caused by the odour of a fire, and produced from the gum of a tree? For, lest you should happen not to know what this incense is, or what is its origin, it is a gum flowing from the bark of trees, just as from the almond-tree, the cherry-tree, solidifying as it exudes in drops. Does this, then, honour and magnify the celestial dignities? or, if their displeasure has been at any time excited, is it melted away before the smoke of incense, and lulled to sleep, their anger being moderated? Why, then, do you not burn indiscriminately the juice of any tree whatever, without making any distinction? For if the deities are honoured by this, and are not displeased that Panchæan gums are burned to them, what does it matter from what the smoke proceeds on your sacred altars, or from what kind of gum the clouds of fumigation arise? – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 7 Chapter 27

Come now: as the discussion has been prolonged and led to these points, let us, bringing forward what each has to say, decide by a brief comparison whether your ideas of the gods above are the better, or our thoughts preferable, and much more honourable and just, and such as to give and assign its own dignity to the divine nature. And, first, you declare that the gods, whom you either think or believe to exist, of whom you have set up images and statues in all the temples, were born and produced from the germs of males and females, under the necessary condition of sexual embraces. But we, on the contrary, if they are indeed true gods, and have the authority, power, dignity of this name, consider that they must either be unbegotten, for it is pious to believe this, or, if they have a beginning in birth, it belongs to the supreme God to know by what methods He made them, or how many ages there are since He granted to them to enter upon the eternal being of His own divine nature. You consider that the deities have sexes, and that some of them are male, others female; we utterly deny that the powers of heaven have been distinguished by sexes, since this distinction has been given to the creatures of earth which the Author of the universe willed should embrace and generate, to provide, by their carnal desires, one generation of offspring after another. You think that they are like men, and have been fashioned with the countenances of mortals; we think that the images of them are wide of the mark, as form belongs to a mortal body; and if they have any, we swear with the utmost earnestness and confidence that no man can comprehend it. By you they are said to have each his trade, like artisans; we laugh when we hear you say such things, as we hold and think that professions are not necessary to gods, and it is certain and evident that these have been provided to assist poverty. – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 7 Chapter 35

Since these things are so, and since there is so great difference between our opinions and yours, where are we, on the one hand, impious, or you pious, since the decision as to piety and impiety must be founded on the opinions of the two parties? For he who makes himself an image which he may worship for a god, or slaughters an innocent beast, and burns it on consecrated altars, must not be held to be devoted to religion. Opinion constitutes religion, and a right way of thinking about the gods, so that you do not think that they desire anything contrary to what becomes their exalted position, which is manifest. For since we see all the things which are offered to them consumed here under our eyes, what else can be said to reach them from us than opinions worthy of the gods, and most appropriate to their name? These are the surest gifts, these true sacrifices; for gruel, incense, and flesh feed the devouring flames, and agree very well with the parentalia of the dead. – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 7 Chapter 37

If the immortal gods cannot be angry, says my opponent, and their nature is not agitated or troubled by any passions, what do the histories, the annals mean, in which we find it written that the gods, moved by some annoyances, occasioned pestilences, sterility, failure of crops, and other dangers, to states and nations; and that they again, being appeased and satisfied by means of sacrifices, laid aside their burning anger, and changed the state of the atmosphere and times into a happier one? What is the meaning of the earth’s roarings, the earthquakes, which we have been told occurred because the games had been celebrated carelessly, and their nature and circumstances had not been attended to, and yet, on their being celebrated afresh, and repeated with assiduous care, the terrors of the gods were stilled, and they were recalled to care and friendship for men? How often, after that—in obedience to the commands of the seers and the responses of the diviners—sacrifice has been offered, and certain gods have been summoned from nations dwelling beyond the sea, and shrines erected to them, and certain images and statues set on loftier pillars, have fears of impending dangers been diverted, and the most troublesome enemies beaten, and the republic extended both by repeated joyous victories, and by gaining possession of several provinces! Now, certainly this would not happen if the gods despised sacrifices, games, and other acts of worship, and did not consider themselves honoured by expiratory offerings. If, then, all the rage and indignation of the deities are cooled when these things are offered, and if those things become favourable which seemed fraught with terrors, it is clear that all these things are not done without the gods wishing them, and that it is vain, and shows utter ignorance, to blame us for giving them. – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 7 Chapter 38

But neither shall we deny that we know this as well, that once on a time, when the state and republic were in difficulties, caused either by a terrible plague continually infecting the people and carrying them off, or by enemies powerful, and at that time almost threatening to rob it of its liberty because of their success in battle,—by order and advice of the seers, certain gods were summoned from among nations dwelling beyond the sea, and honoured with magnificent temples; and that the violence of the plague abated, and very frequent triumphs were gained, the power of the enemy being broken, and the territory of the empire was increased, and provinces without number fell under your sway. But neither does this escape our knowledge, that we have seen it asserted that, when the Capitol was struck by a thunderbolt, and many other things in it, the image of Jupiter also, which stood on a lofty pillar, was hurled from its place. Thereafter a response was given by the soothsayers, that cruel and very sad mischances were portended from fire and slaughter, from the destruction of the laws, and the overthrow of justice, especially, however, from enemies themselves belonging to the nation, and from an impious band of conspirators; but that these things could not be averted, nay, that the accursed designs could not be revealed, unless Jupiter were again set up firmly on a higher pillar, turned towards the east, and facing the rays of the rising sun. Their words were trustworthy, for, when the pillar was raised, and the statue turned towards the sun, the secrets were revealed, and the offences made known were punished. – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 7 Chapter 40

But the Great Mother, also, says my opponent, being summoned from Phrygian Pessinus in precisely the same way by command of the seers, was a cause of safety and great joy to the people. For, on the one hand, a long-powerful enemy was thrust out from the position he had gained in Italy; and, on the other, its ancient glory was restored to the city by glorious and illustrious victories, and the boundaries of the empire were extended far and wide, and their rights as freemen were torn from races, states, peoples without number, and the yoke of slavery imposed on them, and many other things accomplished at home and abroad established the renown and dignity of the race with irresistible power. If the histories tell the truth, and do not insert what is false in their accounts of events, nothing else truly is said to have been brought from Phrygia, sent by King Attalus, than a stone, not large, which could be carried in a man’s hand without any pressure—of a dusky and black colour—not smooth, but having little corners standing out, and which to-day we all see put in that image instead of a face, rough and unhewn, giving to the figure a countenance by no means lifelike. – Arnobius (305 AD) The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen Book 7 Chapter 49

Lactantius (313 AD):

How much better is it to despise vanities, and to turn to God, to maintain the condition which you have received from God, to maintain your name! For on this account he is called anthropos, because he looks upward. But he looks upward who looks up to the true and living God, who is in heaven; who seeks after the Maker and Parent of his soul, not only with his perception and mind, but also with his countenance and eyes raised aloft. But he who enslaves himself to earthly and humble things, plainly prefers to himself that which is below him. For since he himself is the workmanship of God, whereas an image is the workmanship of man, the human workmanship cannot be preferred to the divine; and as God is the parent of man, so is the man of the statue. Therefore he is foolish and senseless who adores that which he himself has made, of which detestable and foolish handicraft Prometheus was the author, who was born from Iapetus the uncle of Jupiter. For when first of all Jupiter, having obtained supreme dominion, wished to establish himself as a god, and to found temples, and was seeking for some one who was able to imitate the human figure, at that time Prometheus lived, who fashioned the image of a man from thick clay with such close resemblance, that the novelty and cleverness of the art was a wonder. At length the men of his own time, and afterwards the poets, handed him down as the maker of a true and living man; and we, as often as we praise wrought statues, say that they live and breathe. And he indeed was the inventor of earthenware images. But posterity, following him, both carved them out of marble, and moulded them out of bronze; then in process of time ornament was added of gold and ivory, so that not only the likenesses, but also the gleam itself, might dazzle the eyes. Thus ensnared by beauty, and forgetful of true majesty, sensible beings considered that insensible objects, rational beings that irrational objects, living beings that lifeless objects, were to be worshipped and reverenced by them. – Lactantius, Epitome of the Divine Institutes, chapter 25

These are the demons, of whom the poets often speak in their poems, whom Hesiod calls the guardians of men. For they so persuaded men by their enticements and deceits, that they believed that the same were gods. In fine, Socrates used to give out that he had a demon as the guardian and director of his life from his first childhood, and that he could do nothing without his assent and command. They attach themselves, therefore, to individuals, and occupy houses under the name of Genii or Penates. To these temples are built, to these libations are daily offered as to the Lares, to these honour is paid as to the averters of evils. These from the beginning, that they might turn away men from the knowledge of the true God, introduced new superstitions and worship of gods. These taught that the memory of dead kings should be consecrated, temples be built, and images made, not that they might lessen the honour of God, or increase their own, which they lost by sinning, but that they might take away life from men, deprive them of the hope of true light, lest men should arrive at that heavenly reward of immortality from which they fell. They also brought to light astrology, and augury, and divination; and though these things are in themselves false, yet they themselves, the authors of evils, so govern and regulate them that they are believed to be true. They also invented the tricks of the magic art, to deceive the eyes. By their aid it comes to pass, that that which is appears not to be, and that which is not appears to be. They themselves invented necromancies, responses, and oracles, to delude the minds of men with lying divination by means of ambiguous issues. They are present in the temples and at all sacrifices; and by the exhibition of some deceitful prodigies, to the surprise of those who are present, they so deceive men, that they believe that a divine power is present in images and statues. They even enter secretly into bodies, as being slight spirits; and they excite diseases in the vitiated limbs, which when appeased with sacrifices and vows they may again remove. They send dreams either full of terror, that they themselves may be invoked, or the issues of which may correspond with the truth, that they may increase the veneration paid to themselves. Sometimes also they put forth something of vengeance against the sacrilegious, that whoever sees it may become more timid and superstitious. Thus by their frauds they have drawn darkness over the human race, that truth might be oppressed, and the name of the supreme and matchless God might be forgotten. – Lactantius, Epitome of the Divine Institutes, chapter 28

I have taught, as I imagine, that the honours paid to gods are not only impious, but also vain, either because they were men whose memory was consecrated after death; or because the images themselves are insensible and deaf, inasmuch as they are formed of earth, and that it is not right for man, who ought to look up to heavenly things, to subject himself to earthly things; or because the spirits who claim to themselves those acts of religious service are unholy and impure, and on this account, being condemned by the sentence of God, fell to the earth, and that it is not lawful to submit to the power of those to whom you are superior, if you wish to be a follower of the true God. It remains that, as we have spoken of false religion, we should also discuss the subject of false wisdom, which the philosophers profess — men endued with the greatest learning and eloquence, but far removed from the truth, because they neither know God nor the wisdom of God. And although they are clever and learned, yet, because their wisdom is human, I shall not fear to contend with them, that it may be evident that falsehood can be easily overcome by truth, and earthly things by heavenly. – Lactantius, Epitome of the Divine Institutes, chapter 30

For when first the accursed and impious worship of gods crept in through the treachery of the demons, then the religion of God remained with the Hebrews alone, who, not by any law, but after the manner of their fathers, observed the worship handed down to them by successive generations, even until the time when they went forth out of Egypt under the leadership of Moses, the first of all the prophets, through whom the law was given to them from God; and they were afterwards called Jews. Therefore they served God, being bound by the chains of the law. But they also, by degrees going astray to profane rites, undertook the worship of strange gods, and, leaving the worship of their father, sacrificed to senseless images. Therefore God sent to them prophets filled with the Divine Spirit, to upbraid them with their sins and proclaim repentance, to threaten them with the vengeance which would follow, and announce that it would come to pass, if they persisted in the same faults, that He would send another as the bearer of a new law; and having removed the ungrateful people from their inheritance, He would assemble to Himself a more faithful people from foreign nations. But they not only persisted in their course, but even slew the messengers themselves. – Lactantius, Epitome of the Divine Institutes, chapter 43

Let them call us foolish, while they themselves are most foolish, and blind and dull, and like sheep; who do not understand that it is a deadly thing to leave the living God, and prostrate themselves in the adoration of earthly objects; who do not know that eternal punishment awaits those who have worshipped senseless images; and that those who have neither refused tortures nor death for the worship and honour of the true God will obtain eternal life. This is the highest faith; this is true wisdom; this is perfect justice. It matters nothing to us what fools may judge, what trifling men may think. We ought to await the judgment of God, that we may hereafter judge those who have passed judgment on us. – Lactantius, Epitome of the Divine Institutes, chapter 57

I have spoken of justice, what was its nature. It follows that I show what is true sacrifice to God, what is the most just manner of worshipping Him, lest any one should think that victims, or odours, or precious gifts, are desired by God, who, if He is not subject to hunger, and thirst, and cold, and desire of all earthly things, does not therefore make use of all these things which are presented in temples and to gods of earth; but as corporeal offerings are necessary for corporeal beings, so manifestly an incorporeal sacrifice is necessary for an incorporeal being. But God has no need of those things which He has given to man for his use, since all the earth is under His power: He needs not a temple, since the world is His dwelling; He needs not an image, since He is incomprehensible both to the eyes and to the mind; He needs not earthly lights, for He was able to kindle the light of the sun, with the other stars, for the use of man. What then does God require from man but worship of the mind, which is pure and holy? For those things which are made by the hands, or are outside of man, are senseless, frail, and displeasing. This is true sacrifice, which is brought forth not from the chest but from the heart; not that which is offered by the hand, but by the mind. This is the acceptable victim, which the mind sacrifices of itself. For what do victims bestow? What does incense? What do garments? What does silver? What gold? What precious stones — if there is not a pure mind on the part of the worshipper? Therefore it is justice only which God requires. In this is sacrifice; in this the worship of God, respecting which I must now speak, and show in what works justice must necessarily be contained. – Lactantius, Epitome of the Divine Institutes, chapter 58

This undoubtedly is not handed down by poets, but by writers of ancient events; and these things are so true, that they are confirmed by some verses of the Sibyls, to this effect:—

“Inanimate demons, images of the dead,
Whose tombs the ill-fated Crete possesses as a boast.” – Lactantius (304–313 AD), The Divine Institutes, Book 1, Chapter 11

Afterwards the kings themselves, since they were beloved by those whose life they had civilized, after their death left regret of themselves. Therefore men formed images of them, that they might derive some consolation from the contemplation of their likenesses; and proceeding further through love of their worth,67 they began to reverence the memory of the deceased, that they might appear to be grateful for their services, and might attract their successors to a desire of ruling well. – Lactantius (304–313 AD), The Divine Institutes, Book 1, Chapter 15

Marcus Tullius, who was not only an accomplished orator, but also a philosopher, since he alone was an imitator of Plato, in that treatise in which he consoled himself concerning the death of his daughter, did not hesitate to say that those gods who were publicly worshipped were men. And this testimony of his ought to be esteemed the more weighty, because he held the priesthood of the augurs, and testifies that he worships and venerates the same gods. And thus within the compass of a few verses he has presented us with two facts. For while he declared his intention of consecrating the image of his daughter in the same manner in which they were consecrated by the ancients, he both taught that they were dead, and showed the origin of a vain superstition. – Lactantius (304–313 AD), The Divine Institutes, Book 1, Chapter 15

He appealed, as it is plain, to the conscience of Atticus, that it might be understood from the very mysteries that all those who are worshipped were men; and when he acknowledged this without hesitation in the case of Hercules, Liber, Æsculapius, Castor and Pollux, he was afraid openly to make the same admission respecting Apollo and Jupiter their fathers, and likewise respecting Neptune, Vulcan, Mars, and Mercury, whom he termed the greater gods; and therefore he says that this opinion is widely spread, that we may understand the same concerning Jupiter and the other more ancient gods: for if the ancients consecrated their memory in the same manner in which he says that he will consecrate the image and the name of his daughter, those who mourn may be pardoned, but those who believe it cannot be pardoned. For who is so infatuated as to believe that heaven is opened to the dead at the consent and pleasure of a senseless multitude? – Lactantius (304–313 AD), The Divine Institutes, Book 1, Chapter 15

It is plain, therefore, that those who are supposed to be gods were but men, and that their memory was consecrated after their death. And on this account also different ages and established representations of form are assigned to each, because their images were fashioned in that dress and of that age at which death arrested each. – Lactantius (304–313 AD) The Divine Institutes Book 1 Chapter 17

And so Hercules, when he perceived that his muscles were disfigured by ulcers, neither wished to be healed nor to grow old, that he might not at any time appear to have less strength or comeliness than he once had. They supposed that he ascended into heaven from the funeral pile on which he had burnt himself alive; and those very qualities which they most foolishly admired, they expressed by statues and images, and consecrated, so that they might for ever remain as memorials of the folly of those who had believed that gods owed their origin to the slaughter of beasts. – Lactantius (304–313 AD) The Divine Institutes Book 1 Chapter 18

For this is always the excuse of those who regard their evils as gods, as the Romans esteem Blight and Fever. If, therefore, vices are not to be consecrated, in which I agree with you, neither indeed are virtues. For they have no intelligence or perception of themselves; nor are they to be placed within walls or shrines made of clay, but within the breast; and they are to be enclosed within, lest they should be false if placed without man. Therefore I laugh at that illustrious law of yours which you set forth in these words: “But those things on account of which it is given to man to ascend into heaven—I speak of mind, virtue, piety, faith—let there be temples for their praises.” But these things cannot be separated from man. For if they are to be honoured, they must necessarily be in man himself. But if they are without man, what need is there to honour those things which you do not possess? For it is virtue, which is to be honoured, and not the image of virtue; and it is to be honoured not by any sacrifice, or incense, or solemn prayer, but only by the will and purpose. For what else is it to honour virtue, but to comprehend it with the mind, and to hold it fast? And as soon as any one begins to wish for this, he attains it. This is the only honour of virtue; for no other religion and worship is to be held but that of the one God. To what purport is it, then, O wisest man, to occupy with superfluous buildings places which may turn out to the service of men? To what purport is it to establish priests for the worship of vain and senseless objects? To what purport to immolate victims? To what purport to bestow such great expenditure on the forming or worshipping of images? The human breast is a stronger and more uncorrupted temple: let this rather be adorned, let this be filled with the true deities. For they who thus worship the virtues—that is, who pursue the shadows and images of virtues—cannot hold the very things which are true. Therefore there is no virtue in any one when vices bear rule; there is no faith when each individual carries off all things for himself; there is no piety when avarice spares neither relatives nor parents, and passion rushes to poison and the sword: no peace, no concord, when wars rage in public, and in private enmities prevail even to bloodshed; no chastity when unbridled lusts contaminate each sex, and the whole body in every part. Nor, however, do they cease to worship those things which they flee from and hate. For they worship with incense and the tips of their fingers those things which they ought to have shrunk from with their inmost feelings; and this error is altogether derived from their ignorance of the principal and chief good. – Lactantius (304–313 AD), The Divine Institutes, Book 1, Chapter 20

For Lucilius in these verses derides the folly of those who imagine that images are gods: “The terrestrial Lamiæ, which Faunus and Numa Pompilius and others instituted; at and these he trembles, he places everything in this. “As infant boys believe that every statue of bronze is a living man, so these imagine that all things feigned are true: they believe that statues of bronze contain a heart. It is a painter’s gallery; there is nothing true; all things are fictitious.” The poet, indeed, compares foolish men to infants. But I say that they are much more senseless than infants. For they (infants) suppose that images are men, whereas these take them for gods: the one through their age, the others through folly, imagine that which is not true: at any rate, the one soon ceased to be deceived; the foolishness of the others is permanent, and always increases. – Lactantius (304–313 AD), The Divine Institutes, Book 1, Chapter 22

What madness is it, then, either to form those objects which they themselves may afterwards fear, or to fear the things which they have formed? “But,” they say, “we do not fear the images themselves, but those beings after whose likeness they were formed, and to whose names they are dedicated.” You fear them doubtless on this account, because you think that they are in heaven; for if they are gods, the case cannot be otherwise. Why, then, do you not raise your eyes to heaven, and, invoking their names, offer sacrifices in the open air? Why do you look to walls, and wood, and stone, rather than to the place where you believe them to be? What is the meaning of temples and altars? what, in short, of the images themselves, which are memorials either of the dead or absent? For the plan of making likenesses was invented by men for this reason, that it might be possible to retain the memory of those who had either been removed by death or separated by absence. In which of these classes, then, shall we reckon the gods? If among the dead, who is so foolish as to worship them? If among the absent, then they are not to be worshipped, if they neither see our actions nor hear our prayers. But if the gods cannot be absent,—for, since they are divine, they see and hear all things, in whatever part of the universe they are,—it follows that images are superfluous, since the gods are present everywhere, and it is sufficient to invoke with prayer the names of those who hear us. But if they are present, they cannot fail to be at hand at their own images. It is entirely so, as the people imagine, that the spirits of the dead wander about the tombs and relics of their bodies. But after that the deity has begun to be near, there is no longer need of his statue. For I ask, if any one should often contemplate the likeness of a man who has settled in a foreign land, that he may thus solace himself for him who is absent, would he also appear to be of sound mind, if, when the other had returned and was present, he should persevere in contemplating the likeness, and should prefer the enjoyment of it, rather than the sight of the man himself? Assuredly not. For the likeness of a man appears to be necessary at that time when he is far away; and it will become superfluous when he is at hand. But in the case of God, whose spirit and influence are diffused everywhere, and can never be absent, it is plain that an image is always superfluous. But they fear lest their religion should be altogether vain and empty if they should see nothing present which they may adore, and therefore they set up images; and since these are representations of the dead, they resemble the dead, for they are entirely destitute of perception. But the image of the ever-living God ought to be living and endued with perception. But if it received this name from resemblance, how can it be supposed that these images resemble God, which have neither perception nor motion? Therefore the image of God is not that which is fashioned by the fingers of men out of stone, or bronze, or other material, but man himself, since he has both perception and motion, and performs many and great actions. Nor do the foolish men understand, that if images could exercise perception and motion, they would of their own accord adore men, by whom they have been adorned and embellished, since they would be either rough and unpolished stone, or rude and unshapen wood, had they not been fashioned by man. Man, therefore, is to be regarded as the parent of these images; for they were produced by his instrumentality, and through him they first had shape, figure, and beauty. Therefore he who made them is superior to the objects which were made. And yet no one looks up to the Maker Himself, or reverences Him: he fears the things which he has made, as though there could be more power in the work than in the workman. Seneca, therefore, rightly says in his moral treatises: They worship the images of the gods, they supplicate them with bended knee, they adore them, they sit or stand beside them through the whole day, they offer to them contributions, they slay victims; and while they value these images so highly, they despise the artificers who made them. What is so inconsistent, as to despise the statuary and to adore the statue; and not even to admit to your society him who makes your gods? What force, what power can they have, when he who made them has none? But he was unable to give to these even those powers which he had, the power of sight, of hearing, of speech, and of motion. Is any one so foolish as to suppose that there is anything in the image of a god, in which there is nothing even of a man except the mere resemblance? But no one considers these things; for men are imbued with this persuasion, and their minds have thoroughly imbibed the deception of folly. And thus beings endowed with sense adore objects which are senseless, rational beings adore irrational objects, those who are alive adore inanimate objects, those sprung from heaven adore earthly objects. It delights me, therefore, as though standing on a lofty watch-tower, from which all may hear, to proclaim aloud that saying of Persius:—

“O souls bent down to the earth, and destitute of heavenly things?” Rather look to the heaven, to the sight of which God your Creator raised you. He gave to you an elevated countenance; you bend it down to the earth; you depress to things below those lofty minds, which are raised together with their bodies to their parent, as though it repented you that you were not born quadrupeds. It is not befitting that the heavenly being should make himself equal to things which are earthly, and incline to the earth. Why do you deprive yourselves of heavenly benefits, and of your own accord fall prostrate upon the ground? For you do wretchedly roll yourselves on the ground, when you seek here below that which you ought to have sought above. For as to those vain and fragile productions, the work of man’s hands, from whatever kind of material they are formed, what are they but earth, out of which they were produced? Why, then, do you subject yourselves to lower objects? why do you place the earth above your heads? For when you lower yourselves to the earth, and humiliate yourselves, you sink of your own accord to hell, and condemn yourselves to death; for nothing is lower and more humble than the earth, except death and hell. And if you wished to escape these, you would despise the earth lying beneath your feet, preserving the position of your body, which you received upright, in order that you might be able to direct your eyes and your mind to Him who made it. But to despise and trample upon the earth is nothing else than to refrain from adoring images, because they are made of earth; also not to desire riches, and to despise the pleasures of the body, because wealth, and the body itself, which we make use of as a lodging, is but earth. Worship a living being, that you may live; for he must necessarily die who has subjected himself and his soul to the dead. – Lactantius (304–313 AD), The Divine Institutes, Book 2, Chapter 2

But let us make allowance for timidity, which ought not to exist in a wise man. Why, then, are you yourself engaged in the same error? I see that you worship things of earth made by the hand: you understand that they are vain, and yet you do the same things which they do, whom you confess to be most foolish. What, therefore, did it profit you, that you saw the truth, which you were neither about to defend nor to follow? If even they who perceive themselves to be in error err willingly, how much more so do the unlearned vulgar, who delight in empty processions, and gaze at all things with boyish minds! They are delighted with trifling things, and are captivated with the form of images; and they are unable to weigh every object in their own minds, so as to understand that nothing which is beheld by the eyes of mortals ought to be worshipped, because it must necessarily be mortal. Nor is it matter of surprise if they do not see God, when they themselves do not even see man, whom they believe that they see. For this, which falls under the notice of the eyes, is not man, but the receptacle of man, the quality and figure of which are not seen from the lineaments of the vessel which contains them, but from the actions and character. They, therefore, who worship images are mere bodies without men, because they have given themselves to corporeal things, and do not see anything with the mind more than with the body; whereas it is the office of the soul to perceive those things more clearly which the eye of the body cannot behold. And that philosopher and poet severely accuses those men as humble and abject, who, in opposition to the design of their nature, prostrate themselves to the worship of earthly things; for he says:—

“And they abase their souls with fear of the gods, and weigh and press them down to earth.” When he said these things, indeed, his meaning was different—that nothing was to be worshipped, because the gods do not regard the affairs of men.

In another place, at length, he acknowledges that the ceremonies and worship of the gods is an unavailing office:—

“Nor is it any piety to be often seen with veiled head to turn to a stone, and approach every altar, and fall prostrate on the ground, and spread the hands before the shrines of the gods, and sprinkle the altars with much blood of beasts, and to offer vow after vow.”

And assuredly if these things are useless, it is not right that sublime and lofty souls should be called away and depressed to the earth, but that they should think only of heavenly things. False religious systems, therefore, have been attacked by more sagacious men, because they perceived their falsehood; but the true religion was not introduced, because they knew not what and where it was. They therefore so regarded it as though it had no existence, because they were unable to find it in its truth. And in this manner they fell into a much greater error than they who held a religion which was false. For those worshippers of fragile images, however foolish they may be, inasmuch as they place heavenly things in things which are earthly and corruptible, yet retain something of wisdom, and may be pardoned, because they hold the chief duty of man, if not in reality, yet still in their purpose; since, if not the only, yet certainly the greatest difference between men and the beasts consists in religion. But this latter class, in proportion to their superior wisdom, in that they understood the error of false religion, rendered themselves so much the more foolish, because they did not imagine that some religion was true. – Lactantius (304–313 AD), The Divine Institutes, Book 2, Chapter 3

What majesty, then, can images have, which were altogether in the power of puny man, either that they should be formed into something else, or that they should not be made at all? On which account Priapus thus speaks in Horace:

“Formerly I was the trunk of a fig-tree, a useless log, when the carpenter, at a loss whether he should make a bench or a Priapus, decided that it should be a god. Accordingly I am a god, a very great terror to thieves and birds.”

Who would not be at ease with such a guardian as this? For thieves are so foolish as to fear the figure of Priapus; though the very birds, which they imagine to be driven away by fear of his scythe, settle upon the images which are skilfully made, that is, which altogether resemble men, build their nests there, and defile them. But Flaccus, as a writer of satire, ridiculed the folly of men. But they who make the images fancy that they are performing a serious business. In short, that very great poet, a man of sagacity in other things, in this alone displayed folly, not like a poet, but after the manner of an old woman, when even in those most highly-finished books he orders this to be done:—

“And let the guardianship of Priapus of the Hellespont, who drives away thieves and birds with his willow scythe, preserve them.”

Therefore they adore mortal things, as made by mortals. For they may be broken, or burnt, or be destroyed. For they are often apt to be broken to pieces, when houses fall through age, and when, consumed by conflagration, they waste away to ashes; and in many instances, unless aided by their own magnitude, or protected by diligent watchfulness, they become the prey of thieves. What madness is it, then, to fear those objects for which either the downfall of a building, or fires, or thefts, may be feared! What folly, to hope for protection from those things which are unable to protect themselves! What perversity, to have recourse to the guardianship of those which, when injured, are themselves unavenged, unless vengeance is exacted by their worshippers! Where, then, is truth? Where no violence can be applied to religion; where there appears to be nothing which can be injured; where no sacrilege can be committed.

But whatever is subjected to the eyes and to the hands, that, in truth, because it is perishable, is inconsistent with the whole subject of immortality. It is in vain, therefore, that men set off and adorn their gods with gold, ivory, and jewels, as though they were capable of deriving any pleasure from these things. What is the use of precious gifts to insensible objects? Is it the same which the dead have? For as they embalm the bodies of the dead, wrap them in spices and precious garments, and bury them in the earth, so they honour the gods, who when they were made did not perceive it, and when they are worshipped have no knowledge of it; for they did not receive sensibility on their consecration. Persius was displeased that golden vessels should be carried into the temples, since he thought it superfluous that that should be reckoned among religious offerings which was not an instrument of sanctity, but of avarice. For these are the things which it is better to offer as a gift to the god whom you would rightly worship:—

“Written law and the divine law of the conscience, and the sacred recesses of the mind, and the breast imbued with nobleness.”

A noble and wise sentiment. But he ridiculously added this: that there is this gold in the temples, as there are dolls presented to Venus by the virgin; which perhaps he may have despised on account of their smallness. For he did not see that the very images and statues of the gods, wrought in gold and ivory by the hand of Polycletus, Euphranor, and Phidias, were nothing more than large dolls, not dedicated by virgins, to whose sports some indulgence may be granted, but by bearded men. Therefore Seneca deservedly laughs at the folly even of old men. We are not (he says) boys twice, as is commonly said, but are always so. But there is this difference, that when men we have greater subjects of sport. Therefore men offer to these dolls, which are of large size, and adorned as though for the stage, both perfumes, and incense, and odours: they sacrifice to these costly and fattened victims, which have a mouth, but one that is not suitable for eating; to these they bring robes and costly garments, though they have no need of clothing; to these they dedicate gold and silver, of which they who receive them are as destitute as they who have given them. – Lactantius (304–313 AD) The Divine Institutes, Book 2, Chapter 4

They approach the gods, therefore not so much on account of religion, which can have no place in badly acquired and corruptible things, as that they may gaze upon the gold, and view the brilliancy of polished marble or ivory, that they may survey with unwearied contemplation garments adorned with precious stones and colours, or cups studded with glittering jewels. And the more ornamented are the temples, and the more beautiful the images, so much the greater majesty are they believed to have: so entirely is their religion confined to that which the desire of men admires.

These are the religious institutions handed down to them by their ancestors, which they persist in maintaining and defending with the greatest obstinacy. Nor do they consider of what character they are; but they feel assured of their excellence and truth on this account, because the ancients have handed them down; and so great is the authority of antiquity, that it is said to be a crime to inquire into it. And thus it is everywhere believed as ascertained truth. – Lactantius (304–313 AD) The Divine Institutes, Book 2, Chapter 7

“What madness is it, then, either to form those objects that they themselves may afterwards fear, or to fear the things that they have formed? However, they say, “We do not fear the images themselves, but those beings after whose likeness they were formed, and to whose names they are dedicated.” No doubt you fear them for this reason: because you think that they are in heaven. For if they are gods, the case cannot be otherwise. So why, then, do you not raise your eyes to heaven? Why do you not invoke their names and offer sacrifices in the open air? Why do you look to walls, wood, and stone—rather than to the place where you believe them to be? What is the meaning of temples and altars? What, in short, is the meaning of the images themselves, which are memorials either of the dead or of the absent? For the idea of making likenesses was invented by men for this reason: that it might be possible to retain the memory of those who had either been removed by death or else separated by absence.

How much better, therefore, is it, to leave vain and insensible objects and, instead, to turn our eyes in that direction where is the seat and dwelling place of the true God. – Lactantius (304–313 AD), The Divine Institutes, Book 2, chapter 5

“It is also supernatural that the statue of Fortune, in the form of a woman, is reported to have spoken more than once. Also, that the statue of Juno Moneta, when . . . one of the soldiers . . . jokingly asked whether she wished to transfer to Rome, answered that she wished it. – Lactantius (304–313 AD), The Divine Institutes, Book 2, chapter 8

I have shown that the religious ceremonies of the gods are in vain for three reasons. In the first place, those images that are worshipped are representations of men who are dead. And it is a wrong and inconsistent thing that the image of a man should be worshipped by the image of God. For he who worships is naturally lower and weaker than that which is worshipped. Furthermore, it is an inexpiable crime to desert the living in order to serve memorials for the dead. For the dead can give neither life nor light to anyone. For they are themselves without it: and that there is no other God but one, to whose judgment and power every soul is subject. [T]he sacred images themselves, to which most senseless men do service, are destitute of all perception, since they are earth. But who cannot understand that it is unlawful for an upright animal to bend itself that it may adore the earth? which is placed beneath our feet for this purpose, that it may be trodden upon, and not adored by us, who have been raised from it, and have received an elevated position beyond the other living creatures, that we may not turn ourselves again downward, nor cast this heavenly countenance to the earth, but may direct our eyes [upward] to that quarter to which the condition of their nature has directed, and that we may adore and worship nothing except the single deity of our only Creator and Father, who made man of an erect figure, that we may know that we are called forth to high and heavenly things…. But if it appears that these religious rites are vain in so many ways as I have shown, it is manifest that those who either make prayers to the dead, or venerate the earth, or make over their souls to unclean spirits, do not act as becomes men, and that they will suffer punishment for their impiety and guilt, who, rebelling against God, the Father of the human race, have undertaken inexpiable rites, and violated every sacred law…. Secondly, the sacred images themselves, to which most senseless men render service, are destitute of all perception. For they are earth. – Lactantius (304–313 AD), The Divine Institutes, Book 2, chapter 18

Whoever, therefore, is anxious to observe the obligations to which man is liable, and to maintain a regard for his nature, let him raise himself from the ground, and, with mind lifted up, let him direct his eyes to heaven: let him not seek God under his feet, nor dig up from his footprints an object of veneration, for whatever lies beneath man must necessarily be inferior to man; but let him seek it aloft, let him seek it in the highest place: for nothing can be greater than man, except that which is above man. But God is greater than man: therefore He is above, and not below; nor is He to be sought in the lowest, but rather in the highest region. Wherefore it is undoubted that there is no religion wherever there is an image. For if religion consists of divine things, and there is nothing divine except in heavenly things; it follows that images are without religion, because there can be nothing heavenly in that which is made from the earth. And this, indeed, may be plain to a wise man from the very name. For whatever is an imitation, that must of necessity be false; nor can anything receive the name of a true object which counterfeits the truth by deception and imitation. But if all imitation is not particularly a serious matter, but as it were a sport and jest, then there is no religion in images, but a mimicry of religion. That which is true is therefore to be preferred to all things which are false; earthly things are to be trampled upon, that we may obtain heavenly things. For this is the state of the case, that whosoever shall prostrate his soul, which has its origin from heaven, to the shades beneath, and the lowest things, must fall to that place to which he has cast himself. Therefore he ought to be mindful of his nature and condition, and always to strive and aim at things above. And whoever shall do this, he will be judged altogether wise, he just, he a man: he, in short, will be judged worthy of heaven whom his Parent will recognise not as abject, nor cast down to the earth after the manner of the beasts, but rather standing and upright as He made him. – Lactantius (304–313 AD), The Divine Institutes, Book 2, chapter 19

But whoever strives to hold the right course of life ought not to look to the earth, but to the heaven: and, to speak more plainly, he ought not to follow man, but God; not to serve these earthly images, but the heavenly God; not to measure all things by their reference to the body, but by their reference to the soul; not to attend to this life, but the eternal life. – Lactantius (304–313 AD), The Divine Institutes Book 6, chapter 8

Therefore we must use our efforts that we may be clothed with the garment of justice and piety, of which no one may deprive us, which may furnish us with an everlasting ornament. For if the worshippers of gods adore senseless images, and bestow upon them whatever they have which is precious, though they can neither make use of them nor give thanks because they have received them, how much more just and true is it to reverence the living images of God, that you may gain the favour of the living God! For as these make use of what they have received, and give thanks, so God, in whose sight you shall have done that which is good, will both approve of it and reward your piety. – Lactantius (304–313 AD), The Divine Institutes, Book 6, chapter 13

Therefore they sacrifice fine and fat victims to God, as though He were hungry; they pour forth wine to Him, as though He were thirsty; they kindle lights to Him, as though He were in darkness. But if they were able to conjecture or to conceive in their mind what those heavenly goods are, the greatness of which we cannot imagine, while we are still encompassed with an earthly body, they would at once know that they are most foolish with their empty offices. Or if they would contemplate that heavenly light which we call the sun, they will at once perceive how God has no need of their candles, who has Himself given so clear and bright a light for the use of man. And when, in so small a circle, which on account of its distance appears to have a measure no greater than that of a human head, there is still so much brilliancy that mortal eye cannot behold it, and if you should direct your eye to it for a short time mist and darkness would overspread your dimmed eyes, what light, I pray, what brightness, must we suppose that there is in God, with whom there is no night? For He has so attempered this very light, that it might neither injure living creatures by excessive brightness or vehement heat, and has given it so much of these properties as mortal bodies might endure or the ripening of the crops require. Is that man, therefore, to be thought in his senses, who presents the light of candles and torches as an offering to Him who is the Author and Giver of light? The light which He requires from us is of another kind, and that indeed not accompanied with smoke, but (as the poet says) clear and bright; I mean the light of the mind, on account of which we are called by the poets photes, which light no one can exhibit unless he has known God. But their gods, because they are of the earth, stand in need of lights, that they may not be in darkness; and their worshippers, because they have no taste for anything heavenly, are recalled to the earth even by the religious rites to which they are devoted. For on the earth there is need of a light, because its system and nature are dark. Therefore they do not attribute to the gods a heavenly perception, but rather a human one. And on this account they believe that the same things are necessary and pleasing to them as to us, who, when hungry, have need of food; or, when thirsty, of drink; or, when we are cold, require a garment; or, when the sun has withdrawn himself, require a light that we may be able to see. – Lactantius (304–313 AD), The Divine Institutes, Book 6, chapter 2

From nothing, therefore, can it be so plainly proved and understood that those gods, since they once lived, are dead, as from their worship itself, which is altogether of the earth. For what heavenly influence can there be in the shedding of the blood of beasts, with which they stain their altars? Unless by chance they imagine that the gods feed upon that which men shrink from touching. And whoever shall have offered to them this food, although he be an assassin, an adulterer, a sorcerer, or a parricide, he will he happy and prosperous. Him they love, him they defend, to him they afford all things which he shall wish for. Persius therefore deservedly ridicules superstitions of this kind in his own style: With what bribe, he says, do you win the ears of gods? Is it with lungs and rich intestines? He clearly saw that there is no need of flesh for appeasing the majesty of heaven, but of a pure mind and a just spirit, and a breast, as he himself says, which is generous with a natural love of honour. This is the religion of heaven — not that which consists of corrupt things, but of the virtues of the soul, which has its origin from heaven; this is true worship, in which the mind of the worshipper presents itself as an undefiled offering to God. But how this is to be obtained, how it is to be afforded, the discussion of this book will show; for nothing can be so illustrious and so suited to man as to train men to righteousness. – Lactantius (304–313 AD), The Divine Institutes, Book 6, chapter 2

“While it was yet hardly light, the prefect, together with chief commanders . . . came to the church in Nicomedia. The gates having been forced open, they searched everywhere for an image of the Divinity. However, [only] the books of the Holy Scriptures were found, and they were committed to the flames. The utensils and furniture of the church were abandoned to pillage. – Lactantius (320 AD), Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died, chapter 12

Apostolic Constitutions:

For if the worshippers of demons, in their hateful, abominable, and impure performances, imitate the sacred rules till this very day (it is a wide comparison indeed, and there is a vast distance between their abominations and God’s sacred worship), in their mockeries of worship they neither offer nor do anything without their pretended priest, but esteem him as the very mouth of their idols of stone, waiting to see what commands he will lay upon them. And whatsoever he commands them, that they do, and without him they do nothing; and they honour him, their pretended priest, and esteem his name as venerable in honour of lifeless statues, and in order to the worship of wicked spirits. – Apostolic Constitutions, book 2, chapter 28

Have before your eyes the fear of God, and always remember the ten commandments of God — to love the one and only Lord God with all your strength; to give no heed to idols, or any other beings, as being lifeless gods, or irrational beings or demons. – Apostolic Constitutions, book 2, chapter 36

But to you, the converted of the Gentiles, is the kingdom given, because you, who knew not God, have believed by preaching, and have known Him, or rather are known of Him, through Jesus, the Saviour and Redeemer of those that hope in Him. For you are translated from your former vain and tedious mode of life and have contemned the lifeless idols, and despised the demons, which are in darkness, and have run to the true light, and by it have known the one and only true God and Father, John 17:3 and so are owned to be heirs of His kingdom. – Apostolic Constitutions, book 5, chapter 16

“There is no sin more grievous than idolatry, for it is an impiety against God; and yet even this sin has been forgiven, upon sincere repentance.” – Apostolic Constitutions, book 2, chapter 23

Council of Elvira (305 AD)

Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration. [Alternate translation: There shall be no pictures in churches, lest what is worshiped be depicted on walls. Latin: Placuit picturas in ecclesia esse non debere, ne quod colitur et adoratur in parietibus depingatur.] – Council of Elvria, Canon 36

Candles shall not be burned in a cemetery during day, for the spirits of the saints are not to be disturbed. Those who do not observe this are excluded from the communion of the church. – Council of Elvira, Canon 34

Eusebius of Caesarea (260-339 AD):

Since you have written about a certain image, as if it were of Christ, desiring that such an image be sent to you by us; what do you mean and what is this image that you say is of Christ? I do not know where this idea originated from that you command us to draw an image of our Savior. What image of Christ do you seek? Do you seek the true and unchanging one, bearing the natural features of Himself? Or do you seek the one which He took upon Himself for us, putting on the form of a servant? For the Word of God and God, taking the form of a servant, condemned sin in the likeness of sinful flesh, as the divine Apostle says.

Thus, He redeemed us from the old bitterness and demonic bondage with His precious blood, setting us free. Therefore, since two forms of Him are presented, I do not think that you seek the form of God, having been taught by Him once, that no one knows the Father except the Son, nor does anyone know the Son properly except the Father who generated Him…

But surely you seek the form of the servant, and that which He put on for our sake, that is, flesh. But we have also learned that this is mingled with the glory of the divinity, and that the mortal has been swallowed up by life. And it is not at all surprising if, after His ascension into heaven, He appeared in such a way, when even while still living among men, the Word of God, giving His chosen ones an earnest of the vision of His own kingdom, having changed the form of the servant, revealed that very form on the mountain above human nature; when His face shone like the sun, and His garments were as white as light.

Who, then, would be able to inscribe on dead and lifeless colors and shadows the gleaming and flashing radiance of such great worth and glory, when even the divine disciples could not bear to look at Him when He appeared in this way, but fell on their faces, confessing that the sight was unbearable for them? If, therefore, His form in the flesh then received such power, being transformed by the divinity dwelling in Him, what shall we say when, having put off mortality and washed away corruption, He changed the form of the servant into the glory of the Lord and God, after the victory over death, and after the ascension into heaven, and after being seated on the royal throne at the right hand of the Father, after the rest in the ineffable and indescribable bosom of the Father, into which, when He ascended and was seated, the heavenly powers cried out, saying, “Lift up your heads, O gates, and be lifted up, O eternal doors; and the King of glory shall come in.”

Therefore, even the form of the servant, when it became such, was completely transformed and shone with an ineffable and indescribable light, a light worthy of God the Word Himself, a light which eye has not seen, nor ear heard, nor has it entered the heart of man. How then could any of the weak attain to it? And how could anyone paint an image of such a marvelous and incomprehensible form, if indeed it should still be called a form, this divine and intellectual essence? Unless, like the unbelieving nations, someone were to paint things that are in no way like themselves, just as a painter paints things that are nothing like them. For such people, when they made idols, as they thought, or any so-called heroes, or anything of that kind, they would want to mold and represent nothing similar or even close, being able to paint only strange shadows, carving out misshapen figures.

Surely you too would agree that it is not right for us to do such things. But if you say that you are not asking for an image of His form transformed into God, but rather the form of His flesh before the transformation, that is, of His mortal body, did the reading escape you where God commanded not to make any likeness of anything in heaven above or on the earth beneath? Or have you heard such a thing in the Church, either from yourself or from someone else? Has not such a thing been banished throughout the whole world and exiled far from the Churches, and has it not been proclaimed to all that we alone are not permitted to do such a thing?

For I do not know how a certain woman once held two tablets, as if they were philosophers, and declared them to be of Paul and the Savior; I cannot say where she got them or where she learned this. In order that neither she nor others might be scandalized, I took them from her and kept them myself, not thinking it right to bring these things out to others, lest we might seem to carry around our God in an image, as idolaters do. I hear that Paul teaches us all not to be conformed to this world. “For if we have known Christ according to the flesh,” he says, “yet now we know Him no more.”

It is said among the godless heretics that Simon Magus is worshiped in an inanimate material image. And we ourselves have seen the namesake of madness being supported by an image among the Manicheans. But such things are forbidden to us. For since we confess the Lord our Savior as God, we prepare ourselves to see God, diligently purifying our own hearts, so that we might see Him when we are purified. For blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God. – Eusebius of Caesarea, Letter to Constantia, PG 20, 1545 f.

We have understood that Simon was the author of all heresy. From his time down to the present those who have followed his heresy have feigned the sober philosophy of the Christians, which is celebrated among all on account of its purity of life. But they nevertheless have embraced again the superstitions of idols, which they seemed to have renounced; and they fall down before pictures and images of Simon himself and of the above-mentioned Helena who was with him; and they venture to worship them with incense and sacrifices and libations. – Eusebius, Church History, book 2, chapter 13, paragraph 6

• Question: How are these heretics “embracing again the superstition of idols?” There was never an idol of Simon Magus in ancient times, so Eusebius can’t be referring to that. The “superstition of idols” is not the practice of bowing to an image of Simon Magus specifically, but the practice of bowing to ANY kind of image and offering incense to it.

And coming to the city of Rome, by the mighty co-operation of that power which was lying in wait there, he was in a short time so successful in his undertaking that those who dwelt there honored him as a god by the erection of a statue. – Eusebius, Church History, book 2, chapter 14

Innumerable other terrible and almost indescribable calamities which came upon the Jews in Alexandria during the reign of the same emperor, are recorded by the same author in a second work, to which he gave the title, On the Virtues. With him agrees also Josephus, who likewise indicates that the misfortunes of the whole nation began with the time of Pilate, and with their daring crimes against the Saviour. Hear what he says in the second book of his Jewish War, where he writes as follows: Pilate being sent to Judea as procurator by Tiberius, secretly carried veiled images of the emperor, called ensigns, to Jerusalem by night. The following day this caused the greatest disturbance among the Jews. For those who were near were confounded at the sight, beholding their laws, as it were, trampled under foot. For they allow no image to be set up in their city. – Eusebius, Church History, book 2, chapter 6

Since I have mentioned this city I do not think it proper to omit an account which is worthy of record for posterity. For they say that the woman with an issue of blood, who, as we learn from the sacred Gospel, received from our Saviour deliverance from her affliction, came from this place, and that her house is shown in the city, and that remarkable memorials of the kindness of the Saviour to her remain there. For there stands upon an elevated stone, by the gates of her house, a brazen image of a woman kneeling, with her hands stretched out, as if she were praying. Opposite this is another upright image of a man, made of the same material, clothed decently in a double cloak, and extending his hand toward the woman. At his feet, beside the statue itself, is a certain strange plant, which climbs up to the hem of the brazen cloak, and is a remedy for all kinds of diseases. They say that this statue is an image of Jesus. It has remained to our day, so that we ourselves also saw it when we were staying in the city. Nor is it strange that those of the heathen (πάλαι/pagans) who, of old, were benefited by our Saviour, should have done such things, since we have learned also that the likenesses (εἰκόνας) of his apostles Paul and Peter, and of Christ himself, are preserved in paintings, the ancients being accustomed, as it is likely, according to a habit of the heathen (παλαιῶν/pagans), to pay this kind of honor indiscriminately to those regarded by them as deliverers. – Eusebius, Church History, book 7, chapter 18

• Eusebius says pagans (not Christians) pay this honor indiscriminately to people who perform miracles, making it clear they didn’t build these monuments only to Christians but to many other people and demonstrating that these pagans are not Christians (obviously).

And thus the whole of human life was enslaved by earthly powers and evil spirits instead of the earlier ministers of God, and all gave themselves over in throngs and swiftly to the snares of pleasure; so that they soon overleapt the bounds even of nature, in unnatural offences of one kind or another, and they not only did things of which it is wrong even to think, but connected them with their conceptions of their own gods, and worked their lust with all the more freedom as a thing supposed to please the gods. Hence soon, according to the holy Apostle, they took no heed of the works of God still bright in heaven.

“They became vain in their reasonings: and their senseless heart was darkened. Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools. And changed the glory of the incorruptible God into an image made like to corruptible man, and of birds and four-footed beasts and creeping things.” [Rom. i. 21.]

And that in the earliest age those upon earth worshipped only the lights of heaven, and knew no image, nor were concerned with the error of the daemons, there is satisfactory proof to be found in the evidence of those, who are strangers to my argument, which I drew upon in the first book of the Preparatio (which I wrote) before the present treatise; they clearly prove that the earliest men did not serve idols fashioned by hand from lifeless matter, nor even invisible daemons, but only those beings, which are said in Holy Scripture to have been distributed among the nations [the sun and moon]. It is time for the Greeks themselves, therefore, whose statements I have arranged in the work mentioned, to agree that the superstition connected with idols was something more recent and novel, being introduced subsequently to the worship of the ancients, as well as the devotion to unseen spirits. All this was the work of the said antagonist of God, who plotted against all those on earth. And all the tribe of unclean spirits co-operated with him. Yea, he surely, the prince of evil himself, worked this result, fulfilling in very deed, in the madness of strange pride, the threats he had uttered against all men, raising the godless cry, “I will be like the Most High,” and with the aid of impure and evil daemons offering oracles and cures and such like in response to human sorcery. – Eusebius of Caesarea, Preparation of the Gospel, book 4, chapter 9

And He lived His whole life through in the same manner, now revealing His nature as like our own, and now that of God the Word, doing great works and miracles as God, and announcing beforehand predictions of the future, and shewing clearly by His deeds God the Word Who was not seen by the multitude, and He made the end of His life, when He departed from men, in tune with and similar to its beginning. – Eusebius of Caesarea, Preparation of the Gospel, book 4, chapter 11

Now we might reasonably ask, to which set of gods, will they say, do the forms belong which are engraven on their statues. Are they those of demons? Or those of fire, and air, and earth, and water? Or likenesses of men and women, and shapes of brute animals and wild beasts? For it has been admitted even by themselves that certain mortal men have had the same names with the Sun and the universal elements, and that these men have been called gods. Of which then would it be reasonable to say that the sculptures on the lifeless statues are forms and images? Of the universal elements? Or, as their appearance plainly shows, of mortals now lying among the dead? Why, even if they would not say so themselves, surely true reason shouts and cries aloud, all but in actual speech, and testifies that they of whom we speak have been mortal men. And Plutarch with superabundant pains describes the particular character of their bodily shapes, in his work On Isis and the Gods of Egypt. speaking as follows: “The Egyptians narrate that in body Hermes was short-armed, and Typhon red in complexion, and Horus fair, and Osiris dark-skinned, as having been by nature men.” Thus speaks Plutarch. So then their whole manufacture of gods consists of dead men; and their physical explanations are fictitious. For what need was there to model figures of men and women, when without them they could worship the sun and moon and the other elements of the cosmos? – Eusebius, Preparation of the Gospel, book 3, chapter 3

If therefore all is interpreted by the Egyptians of the visible elements of the world alone, and nothing of incorporeal and living beings, and if the elements and all visible bodies are by their own account inanimate and irrational, and in their nature fleeting and perishable,–see into what difficulties their theology has fallen again, in deifying inanimate substance, and dead and irrational bodies, especially since they referred nothing to incorporeal and intelligent beings, nor to a mind and reason creating the universe. But since it was acknowledged in the passages before quoted that their theological doctrines had been brought over to the Greeks from the Egyptians, it is time that the Greeks also should take their place with them, and give the same physiological explanations as the Egyptians, and be convicted of deifying nothing more than inanimate matter…. Moreover, consider all things carefully, and see what blessings God’s Christ came to bestow on us, since through His teaching in the Gospel he has redeemed even the souls of Egyptians from such a disease of lasting and long continued blindness, so that now most of the people of Egypt have been freed from this insanity. – Eusebius, Preparation of the Gospel, book 3, chapter 4

Must not then the gospel of Jesus our Saviour, the Christ of God, be great and admirable, as teaching all mankind to worship with befitting thoughts the God and Lord of sun and moon, and Maker of the whole cosmos, who is Himself high above and beyond the universe, and to celebrate in hymns not the elements of bodies, but Him who is the sustainer of life itself, and dispenser of all good things? For that gospel teaches us not to stand in awe of the visible parts of the cosmos and all that can be apprehended by fleshly sense, as they must be of perishable nature; but to marvel only at the mind which in all these exists unseen, and which creates both the whole and each several part; and to regard as God one sole Divine Power pervading and ordering all things, being in its nature incorporeal and intelligent, or rather impossible to describe and to conceive, which shows itself through all things whereby it works, and incorporeally pervades and traverses them all without intermixture, and throughout all things, not only in heaven but also upon earth, both the universal elements and the several parts, exhibits the perpetual mighty working of the Godhead, and presides over all in a manner which our sight and sense cannot perceive, and governs the whole cosmos by laws of ineffable wisdom. – Eusebius, Preparation of the Gospel, book 3, chapter 6

Listen then to their physiology also, and observe with what boastfulness it has been published by Porphyry:

[PORPHYRY] “The thoughts of a wise theology, wherein men indicated God and God’s powers by images akin to sense, and sketched invisible things in visible forms, I will show to those who have learned to read from the statues as from books the things there written concerning the gods. Nor is it any wonder that the utterly unlearned regard the statues as wood and stone, just as also those who do not understand the written letters look upon the monuments as mere stones, and on the tablets as bits of wood, and on books as woven papyrus.”

After such proud boasting by way of prelude, hear how he goes on next to write, word for word:

“As the deity is of the nature of light, and dwells in an atmosphere of ethereal fire, and is invisible to sense that is busy about mortal life, He through translucent matter, as crystal or Parian marble or even ivory, led men on to the conception of his light, and through material gold to the discernment of the fire, and to his undefiled purity, because gold cannot be defiled. On the other hand, black marble was used by many to show his invisibility; and they moulded their gods in human form because the deity is rational, and made these beautiful, because in those is pure and perfect beauty; and in varieties of shape and age, of sitting and standing, and drapery; and some of them male, and some female, virgins, and youths, or married, to represent their diversity.”

[EUSEBIUS] These are the statements of this wonderful philosopher. And what could be more unseemly than talking, as they do, in solemn phrase about shameful things? Or what more violently unreasonable than to assert that lifeless materials, gold, and marble, and such like, bear representations of the light of the gods, and manifestations of their heavenly and ethereal nature? That these are modern sophistries, and never entered, even in a dream, into the imagination of the ancients, you may learn, on being informed that statues made of gold, and other material esteemed more precious, were even rejected among the men of former times. – Eusebius, Preparation of the Gospel, book 3, chapter 7

[PLUTARCH] “The making of wooden statues seems to be a primitive and ancient custom, inasmuch as the first image sent to Delos by Erysichthon for Apollo at the time of the religious embassies was of wood; also the image of Athena Polias was of wood, which was set up by the aborigines, and which the Athenians carefully preserve to the present day. The Samians also had a wooden figure of Hera, as Callimachus says:

‘No polish’d work of Smilis thou, but plank
Untouch’d by chisel, as by ancient rule
They made their gods: so Danaus of plain wood
Athena’s seated form in Lindus set.’

“And it is said that Peiras, who first founded the temple of Hera in Argolis, and appointed his own daughter Callithyia priestess, cut down a tall pear-tree from the wood about Tiryns, and formed a statue of Hera. For stone being rough and hard to work, and lifeless, they were not willing to have it carved into a likeness of a deity: and gold and silver they thought to be sickly colours and stains breaking out like bruises from a barren and corrupt soil which had been stricken by fire: but sometimes in sport they made use of ivory also, as a variation in luxury.” So says Plutarch; and long before him Plato knew well that there is nothing venerable nor suited to the divine nature in gold and ivory, and things manufactured out of lifeless material: for hear what sort of directions he gives in the Laws: “The land, therefore, and the household hearth are for all men temples of all the gods; wherefore let no man consecrate temples a second time to the gods. In other cities gold and silver, whether in private houses or in temples, are an invidious possession; and ivory taken from a dead body is not a pure offering; iron also and bronze are implements of war.” – Eusebius, Preparation of the Gospel, book 3, chapter 8

But how, if it was not possible to make an image such as the description indicated, and if, as we have seen, it indicated the parts of the sensible and visible world, heaven and the things in heaven, the air also, and earth, and all that is therein–if then, I say, it was not possible to compose an image of the visible parts of the world, how, inasmuch as God was [pure] mind, could any one make an image of him? And what likeness can a human body have to the mind of God? For my part I think there is nothing in it answering even to the mind of man, since the one is incorporeal, uncompounded, and without parts, while the other, being the work of common mechanics, is the imitation of the nature of a mortal body, and represents a deaf and dumb image of living flesh in lifeless and dead matter.

Rather does the rational and immortal soul and the impassible mind in man’s nature seem to me to be rightly spoken of as preserving an image and likeness of God, inasmuch as it is immaterial and incorporeal, and intelligent and rational in its essence, and is capable of virtue and wisdom. If then any one were able to fabricate an image and form of the soul in a statue, such a man might also make some representation of the higher natures; but if the mind of man is without form and cannot be seen or figured, neither discernible by sight, nor in its essence comprehensible by speech and hearing, who would be so insane as to declare that the statue made in the likeness of man bears the form and image of the Most High God? Rather God’s nature is imaged apart from all perishable matter, being contemplated by purified souls in lucid thought and in silence: whereas, in the representation of the visible Zeus, the figure must be an image of a man of mortal nature, yet not an imitation of the whole man, but of one and that the worse part of him, because it conveys not a trace of life and soul. How then can the God who is over all, and the mind which is the creator of the universe, be that same Zeus who is seen in the bronze or in the dead ivory? – Eusebius, Preparation of the Gospel, book 3, chapter 10

Why then ought we to deify these things which have been made by the God of the universe for sustenance of the bodies of the animals upon the earth? Or why is the worship of the power of the earth becoming to us, who have received from God, the sovereign ruler of the world, a soul whose nature is heavenly, rational, and immortal, capable of contemplation by the purged eyes of thought? – Eusebius, Preparation of the Gospel, book 3, chapter 11

Are they not again convicted of deifying “the creature rather than the Creator,” and the handiwork of the world but not the worker, with great risk and danger, and with mischief that must fall on their own head? But if they shall assert that they deify not the visible bodies of sun and moon and stars, nor yet the sensible parts of the world, but the powers (δυνάμεις), invisible in them, of the very God who is over all–for they say that God being One fills all things with various powers, and pervades all, and rules over all, but as existing in all and pervading all in an incorporeal and invisible manner, and that they rightly worship Him through the things which we have mentioned–why in the world therefore do they not reject the foul and unseemly fables concerning the gods as being unlawful and impious, and put out of sight the very books concerning them, as containing blasphemous and licentious teaching, and celebrate the One and Only and Invisible God openly and purely and without any foul envelopment?

For this was what those who had known the truth ought to do, and not to degrade and debase the venerable name of God into foul and lustful fables of things unspeakable; nor yet to shut themselves up in cells and dark recesses and buildings made by man, as if they would find God inside; nor to think that they are worshipping the Divine powers in statues made of lifeless matter, nor to suppose that by vapours of gore and filth steaming from the earth, and by the blood of slain animals they are doing things pleasing to God. Surely it became these men of wisdom and of lofty speech, as being set free from all these bonds of error, to impart of their physical speculations ungrudgingly to all men, and to proclaim as it were in naked truth to all, that they should admire (ἀποθαυμάζειν) not the things that are seen, but only the unseen Creator of things visible, and worship (θρησκεύειν) His invisible and incorporeal powers in ways invisible and incorporeal, not by kindling fire, nor yet by offerings of rams and bulls, nay, nor yet by imagining that they honour the Deity by garlands and statues and the building of temples, but by worshipping Him with purified thoughts and right and true doctrines, in dispassionate calmness of soul, and in growing as far as possible like unto Him. But no one ever yet, barbarian or Greek, began to show all men this truth except only our Saviour; who, having proclaimed to all nations an escape from their ancient error, procured abundantly for them all a way of return and of devotion to the one true and only God of the universe. Yet the men perversely wise who boasted of the highest philosophy of life, whereby as the inspired Apostle says, “though they knew God, they glorified Him not as God, neither gave thanks; but became vain in their reasonings, and their senseless heart was darkened. They professed indeed to be wise, but became fools… and worshipped and served the creature rather than the Creator, who is blessed for ever.” – Eusebius, Preparation of the Gospel, book 3, chapter 13

So after their long and manifold philosophical speculation, and after their solemn systems of meteorology and physiology, they fell down from their high place, as it were from the loftiest mountain-top, and were dragged down with the common herd, and swept away with the polytheistic delusion of the ancients, pretending that they glorified the like deities with the multitude by offering sacrifice and falling down before images, and increasing, and still further strengthening, the vulgar opinion of the legendary stories concerning the gods. Must it not then be evident to all men that they are only talking solemn nonsense in their physical theories, and, as far as words go, putting a fair face on foul things by their perversion of the truth, but in actual deeds establishing the fabulous delusion, and the vulgar superstition? – Eusebius, Preparation of the Gospel, book 3, chapter 14

What government, then, could be more holy than this? And what honor more fitting for God, with the whole multitude being disposed toward piety, and the special care being entrusted to the priests, and with the entire polity being managed as if it were a kind of religious ceremony? For what others, practicing them for a small number of days, are not able to keep, calling them mysteries and rites, these things we keep with great pleasure and an unchangeable mind throughout all time. What then are the declarations and pronouncements? They are simple and well-known. The first, which concerns God, takes the lead: God possesses all things, perfect and blessed, self-sufficient for himself and for all; he is the beginning, middle, and end of all things, manifest in his works and graces and more evident than anything else, but in form and magnitude most invisible to us. All material, even if it be very costly, is worthless for an image of Him; every art is artless for the conception of imitating Him; we have neither seen nor do we conceive anything like Him, nor is it holy to make a likeness. – Eusebius, Preparation of the Gospel, book 8, chapter 8

[FROM CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA CONCERNING THOSE WHO HAVE MENTIONED THE JEWISH NATION] “Clearchus the Peripatetic says that he knew a certain Jew, who associated with Aristotle.” And after other matters he adds: “Numa, king of the Romans, was a Pythagorean, and having been benefited by the writings of Moses, he forbade the Romans to fashion an image of God in the form of man or of any living creature. At any rate, during the first one hundred and seventy years, though they were building temples, they made no image, either carved or painted. For Numa showed them in a hidden way that it is not possible to apprehend the Best Being by the tongue, but only by the mind.” Further to this, he subsequently adds these words: “And Megasthenes, the historian who lived with Seleucus Nicator, writes most clearly as follows in the third of his Indica: ‘All that has been said about nature by the ancients is said also among the philosophers outside of Greece, in India by the Brahmans, and in Syria by those who are called Jews.’” Further to this, Clement makes mention of Aristobulus the Peripatetic and of Numenius the Pythagorean, saying: “Aristobulus in the first of his books To Philometor writes word for word: ‘Plato followed our legislation, and it is evident that he had carefully studied each of the precepts stated in it. For there had been translated by others before Demetrius, before the supremacy of Alexander and the Persians, both the account of the exodus of the Hebrews our fellow-citizens out of Egypt, and the manifestation of all that happened to them, and the taking possession of the land, and the exposition of the whole legislation. So it is very clear that the aforesaid philosopher has taken many things; for he was very learned, just as Pythagoras was, who transferred many of our precepts into his own system of doctrines.’” – Eusebius, Preparation of the Gospel, book 9, chapter 6

5. What prophet or diviner could foretell that their rites would vanish at the presence of a new Deity in the world, and that the knowledge and worship of the Almighty Sovereign should be freely given to all mankind? Which of them foreknew the august and pious reign of our victorious emperor, or his triumphant conquests everywhere over the false demons, or the overthrow of their high places? 6. Which of the heroes has announced the melting down and conversion of the lifeless statues from their useless forms to the necessary uses of men? Which of the gods have yet had power to speak of their own images thus melted and contemptuously reduced to fragments? – Eusebius, Oration in Praise of Constantine, chapter 9

2. Hence the universal change for the better, which leads men to spurn their lifeless idols, to trample under foot the lawless rites of their demon deities, and laugh to scorn the time-honored follies of their fathers. Hence, too, the establishment in every place of those schools of sacred learning, wherein men are taught the precepts of saving truth, and dread no more those objects of creation which are seen by the natural eye, nor direct a gaze of wonder at the sun, the moon, or stars; but acknowledge him who is above all these, that invisible Being who is the Creator of them all, and learn to worship him alone. – Eusebius, Oration in Praise of Constantine, chapter 10

9. Again, well might we liken those to children, who should admire the seven-stringed lyre, and disregard him who invented or has power to use it: or those who forget the valiant warrior, and adorn his spear and shield with the chaplet of victory: or, lastly, those who hold the squares and streets, the public buildings, temples, and gymnasia of a great and royal city in equal honor with its founder; forgetting that their admiration is due, not to lifeless stones, but to him whose wisdom planned and executed these mighty works. 10. Not less absurd is it for those who regard this universe with the natural eye to ascribe its origin to the sun, or moon, or any other heavenly body. Rather let them confess that these are themselves the works of a higher wisdom, remember the Maker and Framer of them all, and render to him the praise and honor above all created objects. Nay rather, inspired by the sight of these very objects [the sun and moon], let them address themselves with full purpose of heart to glorify and worship him who is now invisible to mortal eye, but perceived by the clear and unclouded vision of the soul, the supremely sovereign Word of God. To take the instance of the human body: no one has yet conferred the attribute of wisdom on the eyes, or head, the hands, or feet, or other members, far less on the outward clothing, of a wise and learned man: no one terms the philosopher’s household furniture and utensils, wise: but every rational person admires that invisible and secret power, the mind of the man himself. – Eusebius, Oration in Praise of Constantine, chapter 11

And now let us explain the cause for which the incorporeal Word of God assumed this mortal body as a medium of intercourse with man. How, indeed, else than in human form could that Divine and impalpable, that immaterial and invisible Essence manifest itself to those who sought for God in created and earthly objects, unable or unwilling otherwise to discern the Author and Maker of all things? As a fitting means, therefore, of communication with mankind, he assumed a mortal body, as that with which they were themselves familiar; for like, it is proverbially said, loves its like. To those, then, whose affections were engaged by visible objects, who looked for gods in statues and lifeless images, who imagined the Deity to consist in material and corporeal substance, nay, who conferred on men the title of divinity, the Word of God presented himself in this form. Hence he procured for himself this body as a thrice-hallowed temple, a sensible habitation of an intellectual power; a noble and most holy form, of far higher worth than any lifeless statue. The material and senseless image, fashioned by base mechanic hands, of brass or iron, of gold or ivory, wood or stone, may be a fitting abode for evil spirits: but that Divine form, wrought by the power of heavenly wisdom, was possessed of life and spiritual being; a form animated by every excellence, the dwelling-place of the Word of God, a holy temple of the holy God. – Eusebius, Oration in Praise of Constantine, chapter 14

Who was “the servant whom I have chosen” (Isaiah 42:1) or him concerning whom it has been said: “Behold, my servant whom I have chosen, my elect; my soul receives him; he will bring forth justice to the Gentiles, and the Gentiles will hope in his name” (Isaiah 42:1-4), and the rest? Is it not clear that the Word is speaking of the Christ of God? The Word appealed to various expressions in the verses above, but through them all the present word delivers this teaching to those who remain in the error of idolatry and accept many gods, and commands: Besides one there is no other god. For that which is unbegotten is one, and the monarchical authority over all is one. And the word of God also includes in this theological discourse a reference to the Father, for “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God” (John 1:1). But it was not the right time to unveil the mystery concerning the only-begotten Son of God to those who were still distracted by images and statues and inanimate wood. For this reason, indeed, he oversees the coming of his Son and the grace that was given through him to all who no longer practice idolatry and to those who are not still deceived by the doctrine of polytheism and who do not believe in inanimate statues and all kinds of images as gods. But such were the Jews, according to the prophet. – Eusebius, Commentary on Isaiah 44:6

And this is the one to whom it was said: “I have called you in righteousness, and I will take hold of your hand and strengthen you; I have given you as a covenant to a race, as a light to nations” (Isaiah 42:6). Therefore, because he said to you “I have given my glory,” one may conclude that he will not give it to another besides you. And what the glory of the one who said these things is has already been taught when he said: “I am the Lord God; this is my name” (Isaiah 42:8). Therefore, the name, by which he was magnified as the Lord and God of all, he says “I will not give to another” (Isaiah 42:8) except to you alone, you whom I presented as a light to nations. And in accordance with the promise, the Christ of God was designated as Lord and God among the nations by the Father who freely gave this glory to him alone. The text goes on to say: “My virtues I will not give to the graven images” (Isaiah 42:8), or according to Aquila: “And my worship I will not give to the graven images,” and according to Symmachus: “My praise I will not give to the graven images.” I suppose that in these words all the nations are instructed not to praise the idols that they used to revere as gods but God alone and to glorify the Christ of God and “the Father who sent him” (John 5:23) alone. And through the Father the Christ alone is worshiped, and therefore the God of all gave his glory and his virtues to him alone and not to any another. – Eusebius, Commentary on Isaiah 42:8

He will turn the darkness into light for us and the crooked places into a straight path. For the ignorance of God which once abounded in our souls he changed into the light of knowledge, and the places that were once crooked to us, that is, the sayings from Scripture that we thought were obscure, he promises to make these plain. And he continues on to say: “I will do these things” (Isaiah 42:16) for them, and to be perfectly accurate, he did not promise that he would speak the words to them but that he would do them. For, indeed, these things were said of old among the prophets, and he has taken it on himself to accomplish them in deed; and, he says, “I will not forsake them” (Isaiah 42:16). Then, after saying these things concerning those who were once blind, he turns again to the word addressed to those who were once close to God. And he says: “After they were turned back” (Isaiah 42:17), alluding to those of the circumcision, concerning whom he says: “But they turned back.” Then, as the conversion of the Gentiles had been displayed to them, and they turned from their error and came into the light from the darkness, he continues on to say reproachfully to those idolaters: “Be ashamed with shame, you who trust in the graven images, who say to the molten images, ‘You are our gods’” (Isaiah 42:17). For truly those of the idolatrous Gentiles were formerly ashamed before they turned to fear the God of the Jews; and therefore he was prophesying these things during the time when they were devoted to idolatry. But now, they have stopped being ashamed because of the conversion of the Gentiles. And this was prophetically foretold when he said: “They will be ashamed of their shame” (Isaiah 42:17). For he says that those who were once blind see, since they then turned into the light, and they will be ashamed and stop saying to the cast images, “You are our gods.” – Eusebius, Commentary on Isaiah 42:16-17

Thus also would the image of God be a kind of living image of the living God, in a mode once more that is beyond our words and reasoning, and existing in Itself immaterially and unembodied, and unmixed with anything opposite to Itself, but not such an image as we connote by the term, which differs in its essential substance and its species, but one which itself contains the whole of its species, and is like in its own essence to the Father, and so is seen to be the liveliest fragrance of the Father, in a mode once again beyond our words and reasoning. For everything that is true about Him could not be spoken in human words, and could not be reasoned with the reasoning of men according to strict logic. – Proof of the Gospel, book 5, chapter 1

‘It is recorded, for instance, in history that the Massagetae and Derbices deemed those of their kindred who died a natural death most miserable, and for this reason hastened to sacrifice and to feast upon the aged among their dearest friends. The Tibareni used to throw their old kinsmen alive down a precipice; and the Hyrcanians and Caspians threw them out to birds and dogs, the former while alive, and the latter when dead. But the Scythians used to bury them alive, and to slaughter over their funeral pyres those who were most dear to the deceased. The Bactrians also used to cast those who had grown old alive to the dogs.’ These however were customs of a former age, and are now no longer practised in the same manner, the salutary law of the power of the Gospel having alone abolished the savage and inhuman pest of all these evils. Then there is the fact that men no longer regard as gods either the lifeless and dumb images, or the evil daemons operating in them, or the parts of the visible world, or the souls of mortals long since departed, or the most hurtful of irrational animals; but instead of all these, solely through the teaching of our Saviour in the Gospel, Greeks and Barbarians together, who sincerely and unfeignedly adhere to His word, have reached such a point of high philosophy, as to worship and praise and acknowledge as divine none but the Most High God, the very same who is above the universe, the absolute monarch and Lord of heaven and earth, and sun and stars, Creator also of the whole world. They have also learned to live a strict life, so as to be guided even in looking with their eyes, and to conceive no licentious thought from a lustful look, but to cut away the very roots of every base passion from the mind itself. Must not then all these things help all men towards a virtuous and happy life? – Eusebius, Preparation of the Gospel 1.4.7

Mankind, devising some consolation for the frail and precarious duration of human life, have thought by the erection of monuments to glorify the memories of their ancestors with immortal honors. Some have employed the vivid delineations and colors of painting; some have carved statues from lifeless blocks of wood; while others, by engraving their inscriptions deep on tablets and monuments, have thought to transmit the virtues of those whom they honored to perpetual remembrance. All these indeed are perishable, and consumed by the lapse of time, being representations of the corruptible body, and not expressing the image of the immortal soul. And yet these seemed sufficient to those who had no well-grounded hope of happiness after the termination of this mortal life. But God, that God, I say, who is the common Saviour of all, having treasured up with himself, for those who love godliness, greater blessings than human thought has conceived, gives the earnest and first-fruits of future rewards even here, assuring in some sort immortal hopes to mortal eyes. The ancient oracles of the prophets, delivered to us in the Scripture, declare this; the lives of pious men, who shone in old time with every virtue, bear witness to posterity of the same; and our own days prove it to be true, wherein Constantine, who alone of all that ever wielded the Roman power was the friend of God the Sovereign of all, has appeared to all mankind so clear an example of a godly life. – Life of Constantine, book 1, chapter 3

All these things the emperor diligently performed to the praise of the saving power of Christ, and thus made it his constant aim to glorify his Saviour God. On the other hand he used every means to rebuke the superstitious errors of the heathen…. From others again the venerable statues of brass, of which the superstition of antiquity had boasted for a long series of years, were exposed to view in all the public places of the imperial city…. In short, the city which bore his name was everywhere filled with brazen statues of the most exquisite workmanship, which had been dedicated in every province, and which the deluded victims of superstition had long vainly honored as gods with numberless victims and burnt sacrifices, though now at length they learnt to renounce their error, when the emperor held up the very objects of their worship to be the ridicule and sport of all beholders. With regard to those images which were of gold, he dealt with them in a different manner. For as soon as he understood that the ignorant multitudes were inspired with a vain and childish dread of these bugbears of error, wrought in gold and silver, he judged it right to remove these also, like stumbling-stones thrown in the way of men walking in the dark, and henceforward to open a royal road, plain and unobstructed to all…. Accordingly, sustained by confidence in the emperor’s pious intentions and their own personal devotion to God, they passed through the midst of numberless tribes and nations, abolishing this ancient error in every city and country. They ordered the priests themselves, amidst general laughter and scorn, to bring their gods from their dark recesses to the light of day: they then stripped them of their ornaments, and exhibited to the gaze of all the unsightly reality which had been hidden beneath a painted exterior. Lastly, whatever part of the material appeared valuable they scraped off and melted in the fire to prove its worth, after which they secured and set apart whatever they judged needful for their purpose, leaving to the superstitious worshipers that which was altogether useless, as a memorial of their shame. Meanwhile our admirable prince was himself engaged in a work similar to what we have described. For at the same time that these costly images of the dead were stripped, as we have said, of their precious materials, he also attacked those composed of brass; causing those to be dragged from their places with ropes and as it were carried away captive…. – Life of Constantine, book 3, chapter 54

Anthony the Great (251-356 AD)

74. After this again certain others came; and these were men who were deemed wise among the Greeks, and they asked him a reason for our faith in Christ. But when they attempted to dispute concerning the preaching of the divine Cross and meant to mock, Anthony stopped for a little, and first pitying their ignorance, said, through an interpreter, who could skilfully interpret his words, ‘Which is more beautiful, to confess the Cross or to attribute to those whom you call gods adultery and the seduction of boys? For that which is chosen by us is a sign of courage and a sure token of the contempt of death, while yours are the passions of licentiousness. Next, which is better, to say that the Word of God was not changed, but, being the same, He took a human body for the salvation and well-being of man, that having shared in human birth He might make man partake in the divine and spiritual nature; or to liken the divine to senseless animals and consequently to worship (colere) four-footed beasts, creeping things and the images (imagines) of men? For these things, are the objects of reverence of you wise men. But how do you dare to mock us, who say that Christ has appeared as man, seeing that you, bringing the soul from heaven, assert that it has strayed and fallen from the vault of the sky into body? – Anthony the Great, Life of Anthony (by Athanasius), chapter 74

The Egyptians are wont to honour with funeral rites, and to wrap in linen cloths at death the bodies of good men, and especially of the holy martyrs; and not to bury them underground, but to place them on couches, and to keep them in their houses, thinking in this to honour the departed. And Antony often urged the bishops to give commandment to the people on this matter. In like manner he taught the laity and reproved the women, saying, “that this thing was neither lawful nor holy at all. For the bodies of the patriarchs and prophets are until now preserved in tombs, and the very body of the Lord was laid in a tomb, and a stone was laid upon it, and hid it until He rose on the third day.” And thus saying, he showed that he who did not bury the bodies of the dead after death transgressed the law, even though they were sacred. For what is greater or more sacred than the body of the Lord? Many therefore having heard, henceforth buried the dead underground, and gave thanks to the Lord that they had been taught rightly. – Athanasius, Life of Anthony, chapter 90

Ponder over these things and think of them, and if you have any care for me and are mindful of me as of a father, suffer no one to take my body into Egypt, lest haply they place me in the houses, for to avoid this I entered into the mountain and came here. Moreover you know how I always put to rebuke those who had this custom, and exhorted them to cease from it. Bury my body, therefore, and hide it underground yourselves, and let my words be observed by you that no one may know the place but you alone. – Athanasius, Life of Anthony, chapter 90

Aphrahat (270-345 AD):

Hananiah also and his brethren were persecuted as Jesus was persecuted. Hananiah and his brethren were persecuted by Nebuchadnezzar; and Jesus, the people of the Jews persecuted. Hananiah and his brethren were cast into the furnace of fire, and it was cold as dew upon the righteous. Jesus also descended to the place of darkness, and burst its gates and brought forth its prisoners. Hananiah and his brethren came up from the furnace of fire, and the flame burned their accusers; and Jesus revived and came up from the midst of darkness, and His accusers and they that crucified Him shall be burned in flames at the end. When Hananiah and his brethren came up from the furnace, Nebuchadnezzar the King trembled and was amazed; and when Jesus arose from the abode of the dead, the people that crucified Him were terrified and trembled. Hananiah and his brethren worshipped not the image of the King of Babylon [Nebuchadnezzar]; and Jesus restrained the nations from the worship of dead images. Because of Hananiah and his brethren, the nations and languages glorified God Who had delivered them from the fire: Daniel 3:28-29 and because of Jesus, the nations and oil languages shall glorify (God) Who delivered His Son, so that He saw no corruption. On the garments of Hananiah and his brethren the fire had no power; and on the bodies of the righteous, who have believed in Jesus, the fire shall have no power at the end. – Aphrahat, Demonstration 21.19

Athanasius of Alexandria (296-373 AD):

For many, not only in ancient times but in our own also, having lost their beloved ones, brothers and kinsfolk and wives; and many women who had lost their husbands, all of whom nature proved to be mortal men, made representations of them and devised sacrifices, and consecrated them; while later ages, moved by the figure and the brilliancy of the artist, worshipped them as gods, thus failing into inconsistency with nature. For whereas their parents had mourned for them, not regarding them as gods (for had they known them to be gods they would not have lamented them as if they had perished; for this was why they represented them in an image, namely, because they not only did not think them gods, but did not believe them to exist at all, and in order that the sight of their form in the image might console them for their being no more), yet the foolish people pray to them as gods and invest them with the honor of the true God.  – Athanasius, Against the Heathen, Chapter 10

But of these and such like inventions of idolatrous madness, Scripture taught us beforehand long ago, when it said, ‘The devising of idols was the beginning of fornication, and the invention of them, the corruption of life.’ For neither were they from the beginning, neither shall they be for ever. For the vainglory of men they entered into the world, and therefore shall they come shortly to an end. For a father afflicted with untimely mourning when he hath made an image of his child soon taken away, now honored him as a God which was then a dead man, and delivered to those that were under him ceremonies and sacrifices. Thus in process of time an ungodly custom grown strong was kept as a law. And graven images were worshipped by the commands of kings. Whom men could not honor in presence because they dwelt afar off, they took the counterfeit of his visage from afar, and made an express image of the king whom they honored, to the end that by this their forwardness they might flatter him that was absent as if he were present. – Athanasius, Against the Heathen, Chapter 11

Again, in worshipping (προσκυνοῦντες) things of wood and stone, they do not see that, while they tread under foot and burn what is in no way different, they call portions of these materials gods. And what they made use of a little while ago, they carve and worship (σέβουσιν) in their folly, not seeing, nor at all considering that they are worshipping (προσκυνοῦσιν), not gods, but the carver’s art. For so long as the stone is uncut and the wood unworked, they walk upon the one and make frequent use of the other for their own purposes, even for those which are less honourable. But when the artist has invested them with the proportions of his own skill, and impressed upon the material the form of man or woman, then, thanking the artist, they proceed to worship them as gods, having bought them from the carver at a price. Often, moreover, the image-maker, as though forgetting the work he has done himself, prays to his own productions, and calls gods what just before he was paring and chipping. But it were better, if one needs to admire these things, to ascribe it to the art of the skilled workman, and not to honour productions in preference to their producer. For it is not the material that has adorned the art, but the art that has adorned and deified the material. Much juster were it, then, for them to worship (προσκυνεῖν) the artist than his productions, both because his existence was prior to that of the gods produced by art, and because they have come into being in the form he pleased to give them. But as it is, setting justice aside, and dishonouring skill and art, they worship (προσκυνοῦσι) the products of skill and art, and when the man is dead that made them, they honour his works as immortal, whereas if they did not receive daily attention they would certainly in time come to a natural end. Or how could one fail to pity them in this also, in that seeing, they worship them that cannot see, and hearing, pray to them that cannot hear, and born with life and reason, men as they are, call gods things which do not move at all, but have not even life, and, strangest of all, in that they serve as their masters beings whom they themselves keep under their own power? Nor imagine that this is a mere statement of mine, nor that I am maligning them; for the verification of all this meets the eyes, and whoever wishes to do so may see the like. – Athanasius, Against the Heathen, chapter 13

But better testimony about all this is furnished by Holy Scripture, which tells us beforehand when it says, “Their idols are silver and gold, the work of men’s hands. Eyes have they and will not see; a mouth have they and will not speak; ears have they and will not hear; noses have they and will not smell; hands have they and will not handle; feet have they and will not walk; they will not speak through their throat. Like unto them be they that make them.” Nor have they escaped prophetic censure; for there also is their refutation, where the Spirit says, they shall be ashamed that have formed a god, and carved all of them that which is vain: and all by whom they were made are dried up: and let the deaf ones among men all assemble and stand up together, and let them be confounded and put to shame together; for the carpenter sharpened iron, and worked it with an adze, and fashioned it with an auger, and set it up with the arm of his strength: and he shall hunger and be faint, and drink no water. For the carpenter chose out wood, and set it by a rule, and fashioned it with glue, and made it as the form of a man and as the beauty of man, and set it up in his house… Know that their heart is dust and they are deceived, and none can deliver his soul. Behold and will you not say, ‘There is a lie in my right hand?’ How then can they fail to be judged godless by all, who even by the divine Scripture are accused of impiety? Or how can they be anything but miserable, who are thus openly convicted of worshipping dead things instead of the truth? Or what kind of hope have they? Or what kind of excuse could be made for them, trusting in things without sense or movement, which they reverence in place of the true God? – Athanasius, Against the Heathen, chapter 14

The details about the gods conveyed in the representations of them by poets and artists show that they are without life, and that they are not gods, nor even decent men and women… For would that the artist would fashion the gods even without shape, so that they might not be open to so manifest an exposure of their lack of sense. For they might have cajoled the perception of simple folk to think the idols had senses, were it not that they possess the symbols of the senses, eyes for example and noses and ears and hands and mouth, without any gesture of actual perception and grasp of the objects of sense. But as a matter of fact they have these things and have them not, stand and stand not, sit and sit not. For they have not the real action of these things, but as their fashioner pleased, so they remain stationary, giving no sign of a god, but evidently mere inanimate objects, set there by man’s art. – Athanasius, Against the Heathen, chapter 15

For what other form do they give them by sculpture but that of men and women and of creatures lower yet and of irrational nature, all manner of birds, beasts both tame and wild, and creeping things, whatsoever land and sea and the whole realm of the waters produce? For men having fallen into the unreasonableness of their passions and pleasures, and unable to see anything beyond pleasures and lusts of the flesh, inasmuch as they keep their mind in the midst of these irrational things, they imagined the divine principle to be in irrational things, and carved a number of gods to match the variety of their passions…. Thus they wallow in them, and portray God, the Father of the Word, in irrational shapes. As to which those who pass for philosophers and men of knowledge among the Greeks, while driven to admit that their visible gods are the forms and figures of men and of irrational objects, say in defense that they have such things to the end that by their means the deity may answer them and be made manifest; because otherwise they could not know the invisible God, save by such statues and rites. – Athanasius, Against the Heathen, chapter 19

For one might reply to them, bringing the case before the tribunal of truth, How does God make answer or become known by such objects? Is it due to the matter of which they consist, or to the form which they possess? For if it be due to the matter, what need is there of the form, instead of God manifesting Himself through all matter without exception before these things were fashioned? And in vain have they built their temples to shut in a single stone, or stock, or piece of gold, when all the world is full of these substances. But if the superadded form be the cause of the divine manifestation, what is the need of the material, gold and the rest, instead of God manifesting Himself by the actual natural animals of which the images are the figures? For the opinion held about God would on the same principle have been a nobler one, were He to manifest Himself by means of living animals, whether rational or irrational, instead of being looked for in things without life or motion. Wherein they commit the most signal impiety against themselves. For while they abominate and turn from the real animals, beasts, birds, and creeping things, either because of their ferocity or because of their dirtiness, yet they carve their forms in stone, wood, or gold, and make them gods. But it would be better for them to worship the living things themselves, rather than to worship their figures in stone. But perhaps neither is the case, nor is either the material or the form the cause of the divine presence, but it is only skilful art that summons the deity, inasmuch as it is an imitation of nature. But if the deity communicates with the inmates on account of the art, what need, once more, of the material, since the art resides in the men? For if God manifests Himself solely because of the art, and if for this reason the images are worshipped as gods, it would be right to worship and serve the men who are masters of the art, inasmuch as they are rational also, and have the skill in themselves. – Athanasius, Against the Heathen, chapter 20

For you carve the figures for the sake of the apprehension of God, as you say, but invest the actual images with the honour and title of God, thus placing yourselves in a profane position. For while confessing that the power of God transcends the littleness of the images, and for that reason not venturing to invoke God through them, but only the lesser powers, you yourselves leap over these latter, and have bestowed on stocks and stones the title of Him, whose presence you feared, and call them gods instead of stones and men’s workmanship, and worship them. For even supposing them to serve you, as you falsely say, as letters for the contemplation of God, it is not right to give the signs greater honour than that which they signify. For neither if a man were to write the emperor’s name would it be without risk to give to the writing more honour than to the emperor; on the contrary, such a man incurs the penalty of death; while the writing is fashioned by the skill of the writer. So also yourselves, had you your reasoning power in full strength, would not reduce to matter so great a revelation of the Godhead: but neither would you have given to the image greater honour than to the man that carved it…. Far more would it be right to deify the artist who carved and engraved them, as being far more powerful and divine than they, inasmuch as they were cut and fashioned according to his will. – Athanasius, Against the Heathen, chapter 21

And generally, if they conceive the Deity to be corporeal, so that they contrive for it and represent belly and hands and feet, and neck also, and breasts and the other organs that go to make man, see to what impiety and godlessness their mind has come down, to have such ideas of the Deity. For it follows that it must be capable of all other bodily casualties as well, of being cut and divided, and even of perishing altogether. But these and like things are not properties of God, but rather of earthly bodies. For while God is incorporeal and incorruptible, and immortal, needing nothing for any purpose, these are both corruptible, and are shapes of bodies, and need bodily ministrations, as we said before. For often we see images which have grown old renewed, and those which time, or rain, or some or other of the animals of the earth have spoiled, restored. In which connection one must condemn their folly, in that they proclaim as gods things of which they themselves are the makers, and themselves ask salvation of objects which they themselves adorn with their arts to preserve them from corruption, and beg that their own wants may be supplied by beings which they well know need attention from themselves, and are not ashamed to call lords of heaven and all the earth creatures whom they shut up in small chambers. – Athanasius, Against the Heathen, chapter 22

And in yet another way one may refute their godlessness by the light of truth. For if God is incorporeal and invisible and intangible by nature, how do they imagine God to be a body, and worship (θρησκεύουσι) with divine honour (τιμῇ) things which we both see with our eyes and touch with our hands? And again, if what is said of God hold true, namely, that He is almighty, and that while nothing has power over Him, He has power and rule over all, how can they who deify creation fail to see that it does not satisfy this definition of God? For when the sun is under the earth, the earth’s shadow makes his light invisible, while by day the sun hides the moon by the brilliancy of his light. And hail ofttimes injures the fruits of the earth, while fire is put out if an overflow of water take place. And spring makes winter give place, while summer will not suffer spring to outstay its proper limits, and it in its turn is forbidden by autumn to outstep its own season. If then they were gods, they ought not to be defeated and obscured by one another, but always to co-exist, and to discharge their respective functions simultaneously. Both by night and by day the sun and the moon and the rest of the band of stars ought to shine equally together, and give their light to all, so that all things might be illumined by them. Spring and summer and autumn and winter ought to go on without alteration, and together. The sea ought to mingle with the springs, and furnish their drink to man in common. Calms and windy blasts ought to take place at the same time. Fire and water together ought to furnish the same service to man. For no one would take any hurt from them, if they are gods, as our opponents say, and do nothing for hurt, but rather all things for good. But if none of these things are possible, because of their mutual incompatibility, how does it remain possible to give to these things, mutually incompatible and at strife, and unable to combine, the name of gods, or to worship them with the honours due to God? How could things naturally discordant give peace to others for their prayers, and become to them authors of concord? It is not then likely that the sun or the moon, or any other part of creation, still less statues in stone, gold, or other material, or the Zeus, Apollo, and the rest, who are the subject of the poet’s fables, are true gods: this our argument has shown. But some of these are parts of creation, others have no life, others have been mere mortal men. Therefore their worship and deification is no part of religion, but the bringing in of godlessness and of all impiety, and a sign of a wide departure from the knowledge of the one true God, namely the Father of Christ. Since then this is thus proved, and the idolatry of the Greeks is shown to be full of all ungodliness, and that its introduction has been not for the good, but for the ruin, of human life — come now, as our argument promised at the outset, let us, after having confuted error, travel the way of truth, and behold the Leader and Artificer of the Universe, the Word of the Father, in order that through Him we may apprehend the Father, and that the Greeks may know how far they have separated themselves from the truth. – Athanasius, Against the Heathen, chapter 29

For just as by looking up to the heaven and seeing its order and the light of the stars, it is possible to infer the Word Who ordered these things, so by beholding the Word of God, one needs must behold also God His Father, proceeding from Whom He is rightly called His Father’s Interpreter and Messenger. And this one may see from our own experience; for if when a word proceeds from men we infer that the mind is its source, and, by thinking about the word, see with our reason the mind which it reveals, by far greater evidence and incomparably more, seeing the power of the Word, we receive a knowledge also of His good Father, as the Saviour Himself says, He that has seen Me has seen the Father John 14:9. But this all inspired Scripture also teaches more plainly and with more authority, so that we in our turn write boldly to you as we do, and you, if you refer to them, will be able to verify what we say. For an argument when confirmed by higher authority is irresistibly proved. From the first then the divine Word firmly taught the Jewish people about the abolition of idols when it said: You shall not make to yourself a graven image, nor the likeness of anything that is in the heaven above or in the earth beneath (Exodus 20:4). But the cause of their abolition another writer declares, saying: The idols of the heathen are silver and gold, the works of men’s hands: a mouth have they and will not speak, eyes have they and will not see, ears have they and will not hear, noses have they and will not smell, hands have they and will not handle, feet have they and will not walk. Nor has it passed over in silence the doctrine of creation; but, knowing well its beauty, lest any attending solely to this beauty should worship things as if they were gods, instead of God’s works, it teaches men firmly beforehand when it says: And do not when you look up with your eyes and see the sun and moon and all the host of heaven, go astray and worship them, which the Lord your God has given to all nations under heaven (Deuteronomy 4:19). But He gave them, not to be their gods, but that by their agency the Gentiles should know, as we have said, God the Maker of them all. For the people of the Jews of old had abundant teaching, in that they had the knowledge of God not only from the works of Creation, but also from the divine Scriptures. – Athanasius, Against the Heathen, chapter 45

But since wild idolatry and godlessness occupied the world, and the knowledge of God was hid, whose part was it to teach the world concerning the Father? Man’s, might one say? But it was not in man’s power to penetrate everywhere beneath the sun; for neither had they the physical strength to run so far, nor would they be able to claim credence in this matter, nor were they sufficient by themselves to withstand the deceit and impositions of evil spirits. 4. For where all were smitten and confused in soul from demoniacal deceit, and the vanity of idols, how was it possible for them to win over man’s soul and man’s mind — whereas they cannot even see them? Or how can a man convert what he does not see? 5. But perhaps one might say creation was enough; but if creation were enough, these great evils would never have come to pass. For creation was there already, and all the same, men were grovelling in the same error concerning God. 6. Who, then, was needed, save the Word of God, that sees both soul and mind, and that gives movement to all things in creation, and by them makes known the Father? For He who by His own Providence and ordering of all things was teaching men concerning the Father, He it was that could renew this same teaching as well. 7. How, then, could this have been done? Perhaps one might say, that the same means were open as before, for Him to show forth the truth about the Father once more by means of the work of creation. But this was no longer a sure means. Quite the contrary; for men missed seeing this before, and have turned their eyes no longer upward but downward. 8. Whence, naturally, willing to profit men, He sojourns here as man, taking to Himself a body like the others, and from things of earth, that is by the works of His body [He teaches them], so that they who would not know Him from His Providence and rule over all things, may even from the works done by His actual body know the Word of God which is in the body, and through Him the Father. – Athanasius, On The Incarnation, Chapter 14

For as a kind teacher who cares for His disciples, if some of them cannot profit by higher subjects, comes down to their level, and teaches them at any rate by simpler courses; so also did the Word of God. As Paul also says: For seeing 1 Corinthians 1:21 that in the wisdom of God the world through its wisdom knew not God, it was God’s good pleasure through the foolishness of the word preached to save them that believe. 2. For seeing that men, having rejected the contemplation of God, and with their eyes downward, as though sunk in the deep, were seeking about for God in nature and in the world of sense, feigning gods for themselves of mortal men and demons; to this end the loving and general Saviour of all, the Word of God, takes to Himself a body, and as Man walks among men and meets the senses of all men half-way, to the end, I say, that they who think that God is corporeal may, from what the Lord effects by His body, perceive the truth, and through Him recognize the Father. 3. So, men as they were, and human in all their thoughts, on whatever objects they fixed their senses, there they saw themselves met half-way, and taught the truth from every side. 4. For if they looked with awe upon the Creation, yet they saw how she confessed Christ as Lord; or if their mind was swayed toward men, so as to think them gods, yet from the Saviour’s works, supposing they compared them, the Saviour alone among men appeared Son of God; for there were no such works done among the rest as have been done by the Word of God. 5. Or if they were biased toward evil spirits, even, yet seeing them cast out by the Word, they were to know that He alone, the Word of God, was God, and that the spirits were none. 6. Or if their mind had already sunk even to the dead, so as to worship heroes, and the gods spoken of in the poets, yet, seeing the Saviour’s resurrection, they were to confess them to be false gods, and that the Lord alone is true, the Word of the Father, that was Lord even of death. 7. For this cause He was both born and appeared as Man, and died, and rose again, dulling and casting into the shade the works of all former men by His own, that in whatever direction the bias of men might be, from thence He might recall them, and teach them of His own true Father, as He Himself says: I came to save and to find that which was lost. – Athanasius, On The Incarnation, Chapter 15

• Notice how Athanasius says God descended to idol-worshipers (those men who were bent on worshiping the creation) by becoming a man, that they might have a visible person to worship. This was the extent of God’s condescension. He never allowed them to worship dead objects. He says they were welcome to continue in the cult of hero-worship and worship of the dead, as long as it was of Christ, but nowhere are lifeless images mentioned as a condescension for these people. It would have been the perfect opportunity to mention them if they had been part of the plan.

For men’s mind having finally fallen to things of sense, the Word disguised Himself by appearing in a body, that He might, as Man, transfer men to Himself, and centre their senses on Himself, and, men seeing Him thenceforth as Man, persuade them by the works He did that He is not Man only, but also God, and the Word and Wisdom of the true God. 2. This, too, is what Paul means to point out when he says: That ye being rooted and grounded in love, may be strong to apprehend with all the saints what is the breadth and length, and height and depth, and to know the love of Christ which passes knowledge, that you may be filled unto all the fullness of God. 3. For by the Word revealing Himself everywhere, both above and beneath, and in the depth and in the breadth — above, in the creation; beneath, in becoming man; in the depth, in Hades; and in the breadth, in the world — all things have been filled with the knowledge of God. 4. Now for this cause, also, He did not immediately upon His coming accomplish His sacrifice on behalf of all, by offering His body to death and raising it again, for by this means He would have made Himself invisible. But He made Himself visible enough by what He did, abiding in it, and doing such works, and showing such signs, as made Him known no longer as Man, but as God the Word. 5. For by His becoming Man, the Saviour was to accomplish both works of love; first, in putting away death from us and renewing us again; secondly, being unseen and invisible, in manifesting and making Himself known by His works to be the Word of the Father, and the Ruler and King of the universe. – Athanasius, On The Incarnation, Chapter 16

• Notice the emphasis on Christ showing His divinity to mankind by His miraculous works, not by showing his body to people. None of Christ’s works are present in icons.

Zeno of Verona (300-380):

So that you, my newly baptized Christian, may not be led astray by an erroneous understanding, first and foremost, make it your own conviction that there are three kinds of sacrifices. One is abominable, the second is rejected, and the third is pure. The abominable sacrifice is that of the pagans, the rejected one is that of the Jews, and the pure one is that of the people of the Christians. But just as the sacrifice of the pagans is abominable, so too is it futile. Worthless people worship worthless figures, which, through the waste of gold and silver, have been shaped into whatever form, expression, or age by the guidance of a file’s tooth. What foolishness it is to offer sacrifice to them who know nothing of it; to light candles before them who cannot see; to burn incense for them who cannot inhale it; to direct prayers to them who cannot hear; to seek protection from them while an unrestrained thief steals without concern. – Zeno of Verona, Treatise 15, chapter 2

Rightly does God express his wrath against such things, as he says: “Do not follow foreign gods to serve them! Do not worship them, lest you provoke me to anger by the works of your hands, and I destroy you!” And what is meant by the works of human hands is explained by the Holy Spirit in the ninety-fifth Psalm, where it is written: “All the gods of the pagans are evil spirits (demons), but the Lord has made the heavens.” Likewise, in Deuteronomy: “They have sacrificed to evil spirits (demons) and not to God.” And so that no one may think they will go unpunished for such sacrilege, Scripture further states in the same place: “Whoever sacrifices to the gods and not to the Lord alone shall be cut off.” This is the divine judgment awaiting the pagans if they do not repent, for even they themselves acknowledge that they neither have a legitimate God nor a legitimate sacrifice. – Zeno of Verona, Treatise 15, chapter 2

“Immediately, they (the Ninevites) condemned the ways of their former life; for the sake of salvation, they no longer hurried, as they once did, to their mute idols. They no longer kindled unholy fires on foul-smelling altars, no longer burned incense, no longer poured out wine as libations, no longer sought omens in the still-warm, smoking entrails of animals taken from them after their unforeseen deaths… This is what we have done, and what we must continue to do, so that we may escape the temptations of the present age and the punishments of the future judgment through Christ, our Lord.” – Zeno of Verona, Treatise 17 On Jonah the Prophet, Chapter 3

Macarius of Egypt (300–391 AD):

4.30.2 For indeed the Lord, having come upon the earth, did a work in it, for he cultivated the fallow and desolate land and cast out from it thorns and thistles and took from it a new plant and planted in it a new, heavenly plantation. For if he had wished to come down to earth in his bare divinity, neither could men see his glory, nor could death itself endure it, nor creation withstand it. But he put aside the greatness of his glory and used agricultural tools and took on the form of a farmer, and likewise he also put on as garments the instruments of the body and the soul, and thus having entered, he cultivated the desolate land of the heart. For if Israel was not able to endure the glory of Moses, how much more was no one able to withstand the divine glory. He therefore took on the form of a farmer and the garment of a plowman. Just as a worker might take up the tools of labor and of the plow and thus dig the earth, so the Lord, having taken the garment of a worker, put laborers into the earth and worked and dug deep and cast a heavenly seed. 4.30.3 For just as in a law court the ruler sits before the judgment seat and then a curtain is placed at the door, so that those outside may be more eager and without fear, so the divinity itself was hidden in humanity and used the human body as a veil or a curtain. And he gives command from without and it happens in another person. He is a fisherman who has cast the net into the depth of the sea and from the dark depth he brought up Adam, and behold, he swims upon the water. 4.30.4 For what labor was it for the divinity, as it was, bare in itself, to kill death? But even having taken a body, he was rather insulted and he suffered. But otherwise, marvel at his wisdom and his glory, how he went down to a dead body and the very dust and the bones and the joints he put together again by his art and his wisdom, he split rocks and raised dead bodies. and there he condemned the principalities and the powers, he triumphed over Satan and upon the tomb, here again he made a victory, and he redeemed the enslaved Adam from the most heavy burden of death. He himself is the weapons, he himself is the warrior, for through this one victory is given to Adam. See what sort of work the Lord, having come, worked upon the earth and having gone down into Hades. For since after the transgression a bitter tree was planted in Adam, the Lord came to uproot that and to plant new heavenly plants. But we have put forth these thoughts, so that someone along with the word might also take hold of the deed, so that this word itself may become an energy and a power.

4.30.5 For just as there is a city having walls, and everything is full in the city in the marketplaces, and in them faces of kings are painted and the very purple of the king; some make likenesses of statues out of bronze, others make icons, others paint the sea and fish, others likenesses of birds and they add wings to them, which neither live nor fly, others paint the sun with its rays, others make the heaven and stars. But these things are dead, not having a soul nor a power that moves them. Go to the image of the king and speak to it, and it neither hears nor answers you nor moves; for it does not have a soul that moves it. Go to the painted statues either in bronze or in wood; likewise there too you find dead images not having a voice nor a living soul. You see painted birds, and it neither walks nor flies. You see a painted sun and ask light from it, and it does not have it to give you. Why? Because it does not have an active substance (κινητικὴν ὑπόστασιν). So also the whole Adam from the transgression of the commandment had a certain image of the first man, but he did not have a heavenly soul nor a living divine image in himself. For this reason he is dead from God and has neither wings, that he might fly into the divine air, nor has he light that he might be enlightened and have an inheritance with the heavenly light. 4.30.6 An old leaven of darkness entered and leavened all of Adam, the leaven of the enemy, and in some part Adam himself was mixed with evil. He had the image of the first creation, but was not able to live in God and no one was able to give him life or power or a soul to move him, neither Moses nor the prophets, but they brought only a certain shadow and a promise that the Redeemer is coming.

And just as a king sees his own image and draws near to it and diligently attends to it, since it is his own image, so also the Lord sent his image through the law, but afterward the substance itself followed. For it was written in the law, that wherever old leaven is found, it will be destroyed. Thus therefore the Lord, having come in the last days, cleansed and destroyed all the old leaven that had destroyed the mind and soul of Adam and he put a new leaven into the earth of Adam and again leavened Adam with a heavenly leaven. 4.30.8 If then the words are good, yet they are a shadow of the true things. For there is need of a living image, so that the heavenly image of Christ, having come, might be mixed with the soul, and then it is able to live in God, so that it may receive wings from there of the spirit and hands and feet and eyes to walk in the divine air and to see the heavenly light and to do a divine work. And the craftsmen themselves who made the idols through wood and bronzes and gold and silvers made images of men and animals and beasts. Go there, seek; you do not find a soul, you do not hear a voice, that it might answer you for they have eyes and do not see, they have feet and will not walk. 4.30.9 Therefore the Lord stood in the midst of the element of the earth, and behold, through his power he gathered the whole world to himself. For his cargo is full of all kinds of good things. And he established his festival filled with all kinds of precious royal goods. Therefore you find all things there, he exhorts all and gathers all of Adam, saying: “I am a merchant and my festival is full. I am a physician and I have many kinds of medicines. Let the lame man receive a medicine that heals his weakness and the maimed man will receive a medicine that heals his affliction, let the blind man receive an eye-salve that opens his impairment, let the dead man receive a soul that moves him and he will be made alive from his deadness.” – Macarius of Egypt, Sermon 4.30.2-4.30.9

18.7.1 Question. What is “in the image and likeness” of God? Answer. Just as God is incomprehensible and indescribable, so also the mind is borne everywhere and is present where it has not been, and if it should wish, it goes away to the outer and to the lower and upper parts of the earth, and the more one progresses in the knowledge of the spirit, so much the more does one know one’s own substance. And in the way that sculptors and all bronze-workers first make a wax mold of the figure they wish to fashion, and after this they make it in the likeness of this through bronze, pouring in the molten bronze, so God, taking “dust from the earth,” made the image of the outer man and according to the likeness of this He made the inner man, who is called soul and mind, a precious vessel, known and understood only by God and by the perfect and spirit-bearing. But the soul of man is more precious than all created things. But the outer man is born just like the other animals, eats from the earth, grows old, dies. But the inner man (that is, the soul) has come into being “according to the image and likeness” of God and is compared to this, for she is the bride of a king, and in the way that a bridegroom rejoices over a bride, so the Lord rejoices over a soul. And she has been called to adoption. “For as many as are led by the spirit of God, they are the sons of God,” and brothers and friends of the bridegroom. And just as the Lord, having gone up to the mountain, “was transfigured” into His divine glory, so souls from now on are enlightened and glorified together, and on the last day their bodies also, being glorified together, will shine forth. For the scripture says: “Then the righteous will shine forth like the sun in the kingdom of their Father.” Therefore, from this they have the adoption and the indissoluble joy, in which the Christians rejoice; for grief does not succeed them again. And tribulation, overtaking the joy of the world, destroys it, but the grace of the Lord causes one to reign with Him for the endless ages. And the kingdom of this world and the power of the earth is lowly and despised, but that of the Lord is unceasing. – Macarius of Egypt, Sermon 18.7.1-18.7.3

For this Word is God; for the evangelist says: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.” “All things were made through him, and without him was not anything made that was made.” And all the angels and the saints through the unseen power of the Word are moved and live, and from his spirit they eat and drink heavenly and spiritual food and drink. “And the life,” he says, “was the light of men,” as the Lord also said: “Unless one eats my flesh and drinks my blood, he does not have eternal life.” But we ought not to understand this bodily and materially, brothers, just as many of the disciples, hearing this saying, were scandalized, “saying, ‘How can this man give us his flesh to eat?'” For the true flesh of life, which Christians eat, and the blood, which they drink, is his Word and the Holy Spirit, and in the eucharist of the bread it tabernacles and sanctifies through the word and power of the Spirit, and it becomes the body and blood of Christ. “For all,” says the apostle, “were made to drink of one Spirit,” as the Lord also said to those who understand this bodily: “The words that I have spoken to you are spirit and are life.” This Word, therefore, alters and changes the natures of created things, in whatever way he wishes. For God, having greatly loved the race of men, wishes and desires to impress upon them the proper image of his Spirit and to make their souls holy. 26.1.5 If earthly men have much love for earthly things, for example a king impresses his own image onto gold, and again in the most beautiful houses others paint their own images, so that coming in and going out they may see their own images in their creations. if, therefore, men have such love for their creations, how much more does God for his creatures and works wish to inscribe and impress the heavenly image of the life of the divine and heavenly Spirit in the house of the body. And again he himself, having taken the image of the worthy and faithful soul, impressed it on the luminous image of his Spirit and sets it up in his heavenly house not made with hands; for earthly things happen to be shadows and images of heavenly things. Let us strive, therefore, to give ourselves completely to the Lord and to despise all earthly things and to dedicate ourselves to him alone and with the mind of the soul to make ourselves strangers to this age and to go out with our thoughts from the visible deceit of the world, so that we may be deemed worthy to obtain the aforementioned good things, having rendered the beauty of our mind desirable to the heavenly King. – Macarius of Egypt, Sermon 26.1.2-26.1.7

53.2.3 Now, therefore, he who formed the body and the soul himself comes and dissolves all the conduct of the evil one and his works which are accomplished in the thoughts, and he renews and forms a heavenly image and makes a new soul, so that Adam may again become king of death and lord of created things. As in the shadow of the law Moses was called the savior of Israel and led them out of Egypt, so now the true redeemer, Christ, passes into the secret places of the soul and casts out from the dark Egypt and the very heavy yoke and the bitter slavery. He commands us, therefore, to go out from the world and to be poor in all visible things and not to have earthly care, but by night and day to stand at the door and to wait expectantly, when the Lord, having opened the closed hearts, will pour out upon us the gift of the Spirit. He said therefore to leave gold, silver, and kindred, to sell one’s possessions and to distribute to the poor and to store them up as treasure in the heavens, “for where your treasure is, there your heart will be also.” The Lord saw that within, Satan in this way prevails over the thought, by dragging it down to the care of material and earthly things. For this reason God, taking thought for your soul, said to renounce, so that even unwillingly you might seek heaven and have your heart toward God. For if you should wish to turn back again to your possessions, you find you possess nothing of visible things. and whether you will or not, where you have stored these things up as treasure and put them away, you are compelled to look, that is, toward heaven; “for where the treasure is, there your heart will be also.”

In the law, God commanded Moses to make a serpent of bronze and lift it up, fixing it upon the top of a pole. As many as were stung by the serpents, when they fixed their attention upon the brazen serpent, obtained healing. This was done as a temporary measure, so that those who were held by earthly cares, the worship of idols, the pleasures of Satan, and all manner of ungodliness might, by this means, begin to look upward to things above. Gaining a pause from things below, they could turn their minds to higher things, and from there rise further to what is highest. Advancing step by step to greater and loftier understanding, they might come to know that there is a Most High who surpasses all creation. In the same way, He commanded you also to make yourself poor—to sell all you have and give to the poor—so that afterward, even if you wanted to sink back into earthly things, it would be impossible. Searching your heart, you begin to reflect: “Since we have nothing left on earth, let us turn toward heaven, where our treasure is, where we have stored up what truly matters.” Your mind begins to lift its gaze upward, seeking the things above, and in doing so, it grows. – Sermon 53.2.3 / Fifty Spiritual Homilies, Homily XI, chapter 8

For the blessed Moses, wishing to raise the groveling mind of the people to the heights and to teach them to look upward, caused the bronze serpent to be lifted up on the wood by the command of God, and so those who were then being bitten by the serpents, by looking up and paying attention to the bronze serpent, believing, were saved according to the Lord’s command at that time. For not yet being able to believe in God, they were thus led to look upward and believe in the Lord’s power, and so they were healed. Nevertheless, it was a type of the Lord, so that just as the people bitten by the serpents, who believed in the dead serpent, were saved—for the venom in them was nullified through the power of the God then tabernacling in the bronze serpent, so those who have been bitten by the spiritual serpents of wickedness and wounded by the deadly poison of the passions, that they might attend and believe in a dead body that was crucified and thus be healed, which is “to the Jews a stumbling block, but to the Gentiles foolishness,” but to those who believe in the crucified body, Christ is the power of God and the wisdom of God. As, therefore, there the living who had been bitten were saved by believing in a dead serpent, here the living who have been bitten by the serpent the devil and have the poison of wickedness spreading through the passions within them are saved by believing in a dead body that has been deified, the deadly poison of the passions within them being abolished. For from that very Adam who was put to death was found a medicine of life for man, which is the body of the Lord, through which every poison of sin is abolished from those who believe.

2.12.7 But at the same time the argument here also refutes the Jews, that if they were saved by believing in a dead bronze serpent, why do these not believe in a crucified body that died and rose and ascended into heaven, that they might live? Therefore the serpent which Moses crucified is a type and a mystery of life and death, that is, of sin and of the Lord. But the mystery concerning the serpent also has another meaning. Just as the devil in the beginning, using envy and malice, through a tree and a serpent, deceived Adam and Eve and contrived for them to be cast out of paradise and brought them down from their former purity and glory into bitter passions and death, and thereafter, taking the whole race of humanity subject to him from them, he led them astray into every sin and defiled passion through which also all creation, being defiled through idolatry and offered to demons, groaned bitterly, in the same way, with ineffable wisdom, God, making provision for humanity, sent his servant Moses for the redemption of the people through the wood of the rod, which, also changing into a serpent, devoured the rods of the magicians that had been changed into serpents, through which he also worked redemption for the people, through which God also performed the signs in Egypt, through which also the sea was parted. And likewise also in the desert, as has been said before, through a bronze serpent lifted up on wood, God bestowed life on the people who believe, so that by the same means through which the devil in the beginning worked death and captivity, through these the Lord might dispense life and redemption. For through wood and a serpent, a woman and a man, death and the passions of sin were brought upon humanity. 2.12.9 Through Moses, therefore, half of godliness was accomplished and half of the passion was healed through wood and a serpent, as has been said before; “for the law made nothing perfect,” but at the coming of the Savior the whole mystery was fulfilled and the perfect accomplishment for the soul was completed through Mary who in place of Eve is taken as Life having borne the Savior to the world, the second Adam, who for the salvation of men gave himself to death.  – Macarius of Egypt, Sermon 2.12.4-2.12.9

In like manner, when the mind of Israel and their thoughts were bent upon departing far from the living God and turning to idolatry, Aaron was compelled to tell them to bring their golden vessels and ornaments. Then the gold and the vessels, which they cast into the fire, became an idol, and the fire, as it were, copied their intention…. – Macarius of Egypt, Fifty Spiritual Homilies, Homily XI, chapter 1

For this reason, let us diligently fulfill what has been commanded and travel along the true way, so that we may thus attain the truth and not make excuses for sin. For since there is not in us a true fast—for a fast is abstinence from evil thoughts—should we for this reason dismiss it and not keep it? May it not be. For since our heart within is female, sharing in and embracing foul preconceptions, must you for this reason also fornicate openly? For since, having renounced the world, you find in your mind and in your soul the whole world and the inhabited earth, is it for this reason not necessary for you to renounce visible things? For since you do not pray the pure and true prayer, do you for this reason not even wish to bend the knee for an hour? For there is need of a contest, brothers, and Christians are what they are. 5.2.6 As a man away from home, having been exiled from his own city for a long time and wanting to return, and traveling through wild places and in lodgings and inns full of foul stench, laments in every way and is distressed, remembering the one that bore him and the honors there and the wealth and the relatives and friends and all the delight and substance laid up for him there, and because of his relation to and love for those things he wished to overcome all things and wanted not even for half an hour to be away from home, so Christians, being in this age as in an inn, are constrained and as in desert and robber-infested places, and being as in a fatherland of enemies and barbarians, they are disgusted and grieved and barely endure their way of life in this age, even though with the mind and the inner man they are from now on in their own city, the heavenly one, and in that world, with the like-minded angels, with the brothers the apostles, with the holy spirits, with the sweet father Jesus Christ; where crowns and glory and wealth have been prepared for them, they associate together. – Macarius of Egypt, Sermon 5.2.5

Question. In what kind of fear and trembling are they? Answer. The fear of stumbling in something, of consenting. Just as if someone having treasures were to travel through places of robbers, he rejoices then on account of the wealth and the treasure, but is in fear, lest the robbers come and plunder him as one carrying unspeakable wealth and as one carrying his own blood in his hands. So it is with Christians. For behold, we have all renounced visible things and are strangers and without possessions and deprived of carnal fellowship. So then, see, the body is set for prayer; the brothers ought to say: does the mind also agree with the body? For just as, for the most part, artisans and workshop masters have their body bound to their craft, and likewise their mind, night and day, so you too examine yourself: having your body as a stranger, do you also have your mind estranged from this age, and does it not wander in the world? For every worldly person, whether soldier or merchant, where he has his body, there he has his mind bound also, and there is his treasure. “For where the treasure is, there the heart will be also.” 7.16.3 So then, in what treasure is your mind? Is it wholly and entirely towards God? But if it is not, you ought to tell me, what is the hindrance. Or are you ignorant that there are wicked spirits? For satan and the demons take possession of the mind and trip up the soul. The multifaceted devil, having contrivances and triple doors and much variety, holds the pastures of the soul and the thoughts and does not allow one to pray rightly or to draw near to God. since this nature itself is capable of fellowship with spirits of wickedness, and likewise with angels and the Holy Spirit. – Macarius of Egypt, Sermon 7.16.1-7.16-3

Especially let us strive to perfect our prayer in faith and fear of God, not being absorbed in bodily habits or by the custom of shouting or the custom of silence or the custom of kneeling, while the mind is held in confusion and turmoil or in sloth and the forgetfulness of ignorance through voluntary neglect, but with all sobriety and attention and good care let us strive to make the inquiry and attention of the mind at all times, but especially in prayer, alienating ourselves from every earthly thought and turning away from all material concepts and let us have the whole mind of the soul through faith and hope in the expectation of Christ, awaiting at every hour the coming of His grace, through which we are able to acquire the true and undisturbed prayer of the spirit, having the expectation of the Spirit through all the outlets and paths of the thoughts of the soul, keeping the Lord before us always through faith and fear, not fashioning in the mind a bodily place outside or below or above, as if God existed in some place and were circumscribed, but by the invisible power of the Godhead which is unceasingly everywhere and is found by those who seek it in fear and trembling and desire in the heart and according to their “measure of faith” and according to the power of their capacity is clearly revealed to the inner man for the salvation and life and sanctification of soul and body, having such a purpose, that the unapproachable power is everywhere. For it is not possible for there to be a place where the ineffable power of the Godhead is not, but in our soul through faith and the seeking for him with desire it is clearly manifested according to the capacity of our faith for the purification of the heart. For a heart could not otherwise be purified and sanctified, unless the sanctifying power of the Spirit has been clearly revealed to the soul. For then we will be able to worship the Father in spirit without defiled and earthly and vain thoughts as is right. A soul, therefore, having such a purpose and awaiting when the energy of divine grace will give life to the deadened heart, and when the fire of the love of the Spirit, seizing the heart, will burn away by its own energy all impurity in it and work purity and sanctification of the inner man, ought not, as has been said before, to rely in prayer upon bodily habits, or by the custom of voice or of silence or of the bending of the knees, but let it be fiery with desire for the Lord, being alienated from every material concept. – Macarius of Egypt, Sermon 29.1.3-29.1.8

The blessed Paul, writing to the Corinthians, says: “But we all, with unveiled face, beholding as in a mirror the glory of God (that is, the intellectual light), are being transformed into the same image from glory to glory.” For just as someone who observes royal garments, a purple robe and a diadem and the other similarly various and diverse garments, marvels at the variety, the beauty, the delightfulness, the splendor of the precious stones, and the sight of the delightfulness and beauty becomes insatiable to him, or just as someone observing the sun sees the flashes of its rays, that as if living they show a varied sight, one better than the other, or just as someone observing in water sees the sun gleaming in the water and changing and moving in various ways; so also those who bear the heavenly image of Christ and have the ineffable light in themselves and are clothed in the purple of the heavenly king (that is, the heavenly joy of the spirit), observing the splendor of the ineffable light within them, see with the “unveiled” “face” of the soul the ineffable variety of the incorruptible glory, how it is transformed “from glory to glory” and into the manifold splendors of the divinity, which it is impossible to express with a fleshly tongue; for they are inconceivable and ineffable, the things which God, by His own immeasurable goodness, does with the saints while they are still in this world. For these are parables and images partially providing a hint to those who understand. For the things of God are known in truth only by experience by those in whom the very mysteries of the realities are worthily at work. It is possible to hear the word of God and to understand beyond your knowledge, beyond your mind, beyond your consciousness, until the very realities of the mysteries of grace come to be in you. For this visible purple and the royal garments provide no profit or life to those who see them, but only delight by their appearance. But the divine glory and the splendor of the heavenly image provide rest and eternal life to the souls that reflect it and have it in themselves, true love in purity of heart, heavenly food, understanding, wisdom, unceasing joy of the spirit, they themselves also becoming like it by the power of its working. As many, therefore, as reflect with their inner eyes this intellectual light shining in their hearts, they are in no way occupied with any earthly or material things, but are wholly bound to that ineffable beauty completely. – Macarius of Egypt, Sermon 10.3.1-10.3.5

In the law God commanded Moses to make a serpent of brass, and lift it up, and fix it upon the top of a pole, and as many as were stung by the serpents, when they fixed their attention upon the brazen serpent, obtained healing. This was done by way of a dispensation, in order that those who were held by earthly cares, and the worship of idols, and the pleasures of Satan, and all manner of ungodliness, might by this means to some extent look upward to things above, and gaining a respite from things below, might give heed to higher things, and again proceed from these to that which is highest; and thus advancing little by little to the higher and loftier kind, might learn to know that there is a Most Highest surpassing all the creation. So likewise He commanded thee also to make thyself poor, and to sell all and give to the poor, in order that after that, even if thou shouldest wish to sink down upon the earth, it might be impossible. Searching into thy heart, thou beginnest to commune with thy thoughts, “Inasmuch as we have nothing upon earth, let us be getting heavenwards, where our treasure is, where we have set up a business.” Thy mind begins to uplift an eye to the height, to seek the things above, and in so doing to make progress. – Fifty Spiritual Homilies, Homily XI, chapter 8

But as Adam, when he transgressed, took into his system a leaven of evil affections, so by participation all who were born of him, and the whole race of Adam, partook of that leaven, and ever since it has grown and increased, until the affections of sin have so developed in men that they have come to fornications and lasciviousnesses and idolatries -and murders and other wrong things, until humanity is all leavened with evil. To such an extent has the evil developed among men, that they have come to think that there is no God, and to worship inanimate stones instead, and to be unable so much as to take in the notion of a God. – Fifty Spiritual Homilies, Homily XXIV, chapter 2

Epiphanius of Salamis (310-403 AD):

Asking what place it was, and learning it to be a church, I went in to pray, and found there a curtain hanging on the doors of the said church, dyed and embroidered. It bore an image either of Christ or of one of the saints; I do not rightly remember whose the image was. Seeing this, and being loath that an image of a man should be hung up in Christ’s church contrary to the teaching of the Scriptures, I tore it asunder and advised the custodians of the place to use it as a winding sheet for some poor person. They, however, murmured, and said that if I made up my mind to tear it, it was only fair that I should give them another curtain in its place. As soon as I heard this, I promised that I would give one, and said that I would send it at once. Since then there has been some little delay, due to the fact that I have been seeking a curtain of the best quality to give them instead of the former one, and thought it right to send to Cyprus for one. I have now sent the best I could find, and I beg that you will order the Presbyter of the place to take the curtain which I have sent from the hands of the Reader, and that you will afterwards give directions that curtains of the other sort – opposed as they are to our religion – shall not be hung up in any church of Christ. – Epiphanius, Letters of Jerome 51, Section 9, From Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis, In Cyprus, to John, Bishop of Jerusalem

How can the practice not seem idolatrous and the undertaking the devil’s? But the devil has always slipped into the human mind in the guise of someone righteous and, to deify mortal human nature in human eyes, made human images with a great variety of arts. And yet the men who are worshiped have died, and their images, which have never lived, are introduced for worship—and since they’ve never lived they can’t be called dead either! – Epiphanius (374 AD), Panarion, Books 2 and 3, Chapter 79 Against Collyridians, Section 4.4-4.5, Brill Edition, p. 640

Peleg was the father of Reu, and Reu was the father of Serug, which means ‘provocation’; and, as I have been taught, idolatry and Hellenism began among men with him. It was not with carved images yet, or with reliefs in stone, wood or silver-plated substances, or ones made of gold or any other material, that the human reason invented evil for itself and, with its freedom, reason and intellect, invented transgression instead of goodness, but only with paintings and portraits. – Epiphanius, Panarion, Book 1, Chapter 3 Hellenism, Section 3.4, Brill Edition, p. 18

In the time, then, as we said, of Anicetus, the aforementioned Marcellina, having come to Rome, spewed out the corruption of the teaching of Carpocrates, and having corrupted many there, destroyed them. And from this came the beginning of those called Gnostics. They have painted images in colors, but some also of gold and silver and other material, which they say are portraits of Jesus, and that these were made by Pontius Pilate, that is, portraits of Jesus himself when he sojourned among the human race. They keep such things in secret, but also of certain philosophers, Pythagoras and Plato and Aristotle and others, along with which philosophers they also place other portraits of Jesus, and having set them up, they worship (προσκυνοῦσι) them and perform the mysteries of the Gentiles. For having set up these images, they then perform the customs of the Gentiles. And what are the customs of the Gentiles but sacrifices and the other things? And they say that salvation is of the soul only and not of bodies. It is necessary, therefore, to refute these men with all strength; for let no one despise argument, especially against deceivers. But someone might say: Are they not detectable and full of foolishness? But somehow even foolish things persuade the foolish and lead the wise astray…. – Epiphanius, Panarion, Heresy 27, (Against Carpocratians)

However, when idols began to be set up, the various breeds of men made gods of the leaders they were then adopting, originally by painting pictures to portray the autocrats or sorcerers they had honored of old, or persons who had done something in the world that appeared memorable, and excelled in courage and strength of body. But then, from the time of Terah the father of Abraham, they also introduced the imposture of idolatry by means of statuary. They honored their ancestors, and those who had died before them, with images, first by making them with the potter’s art and then by representing them through every craft—builders by carving stone, silversmiths and goldsmiths by crafting them with their media, and so with woodcarvers and the rest. The Egyptians, together with the Babylonians, Phrygians and Phoenicians, were the first to introduce this religion of image manufacture and mystery rites. – Epiphanius, Panarion, Anacephalaeosis I, Section 3,2, Brill Edition, p. 9

The man called Elxai joined them later, in the reign of the emperor Trajan after the Savior’s incarnation, and he was a false prophet. He wrote a book, supposedly by prophecy or as though by inspired wisdom. But he taught hypocrisy, by saying that even though one should happen to worship idols in time of persecution, it is not a sin—just so long as he does not worship them in his conscience and, whatever confession he may make with his mouth, he does not make it in his heart…. In addition the fraud ventured to produce a witness. He said that a Phineas, a priest of the stock of Levi, Aaron, and the ancient Phineas, escaped death in Babylon during the captivity by bowing down to the image of Artemis at Susa in the reign of King Darius. Thus all the things he teaches are false and futile. – Epiphanius, Panarion, Heresy 19, Brill Edition, p. 49

Anyone who is willing to make an impartial investigation can see, from the very object of it, that the holy catholic church is the beginning of everything. Adam, the man who was formed at the first, was not formed with a body circumcised, but uncircumcised. He was no idolater, and he knew the Father as God, and the Son and Holy Spirit, for he was a prophet…. Without circumcision he was no Jew and since he did not worship (προσκυνῶν) carved images or any other thing, he was no idolater. – Epiphanius, Panarion, Heresy 2, Section 2,3-2,5, Brill Edition, p. 17

Nahor was born as a son to Serug and became the father of Terah. The making of images with clay and pottery began at this point, with the art of this Terah. – Epiphanius, Panarion, Heresy 3, Section 3,5, Brill Edition, p. 18

 For it is the mark of the faithful to confess the Scripture, and of the unfaithful to reject grace. Therefore, that which is in the image is in the human, but God himself knows how it is. For if you say, “He made man in his image,” and you suppose that the body is [that image]—but God is invisible, incomprehensible, and inconceivable—how can the visible, comprehensible, and tangible thing be an image of the invisible and incomprehensible one? – Epiphanius, Anchoratus, 55.6-55.7

For when you took the image of the Great King and cast it into a state of lifelessness, godlessness, lack of counsel, lack of power, lack of glory, and lack of essence, you ought to have had your unholy tongue cut out for uttering such a word against the Lord and for bringing ruin upon a soul that has acted so impiously. For by circumscribing the image of God with lifelessness, you claim that this image possesses neither lordship, nor deity, nor essence, nor counsel, nor power, nor glory. You want it to be an immobile image of these things, as if it were soulless and lifeless, making it out to be something cast outside, and just as soulless as if it were constructed by human art alone. But you refuse to allow that the image of the living God is itself living, or that the image of Essence is itself essence, or that the image of counsel, power, and glory is invariably counsel, power, and glory. To say ‘invariably’ (ἀπαραλλάκτως) does not mean ‘unbegottenly’ (ἀγεννήτως), but rather that it possesses both deity and every divine operation, distinctly impressed and accurately conformed to the Father. – Epiphanius of Salamis, Panarion, Heresy 72 (Against the Marcellians)

[The heretic Marcellus says]: “Therefore, if He is the image of an essence, He can no longer be self-essence. And if He is the image of a counsel, He can no longer be self-counsel. And if of power, no longer power. And if of glory, no longer glory. For the image is not an image of itself, but of someone else.” But these arguments of yours, Marcellus, are stale and false. For Asterius wishes Him to be all those things that he previously mentioned, saying, “King from King, Lord from Lord, God from God,” and he dissolves your concept of a soulless image—the one which, according to you, is constructed by human art alone. For he calls Him a living image of all these things, the living imprint of the Begetter. He calls Him the self-essence image of the essence, the self-counsel of the counsel, the self-power of the power, and the self-glory of the glory—and not an image of Himself, but of another. But you, because you do not confess the Son to be God from God, nor Light from Light, nor Power from Power, do not want the Son to be either God, or Light, or Power, or essence, or counsel, or glory. Instead, you impiously annihilate these things in the body at the consummation [of the age] along with them. And you deny the statement, “The Word was God,” while you call Him “Son of God” either in name alone or merely as a man, so that God would be begetting something of a different kind—begetting the Son by adoption (θέσει), according to the passages: “I have begotten and brought up children,” and “You have received the spirit of adoption,” and “Ascribe to the Lord, O sons of God.” Therefore, when Asterius says that the Son is the invariable image of the Father’s essence, power, counsel, and glory, he is absolutely saying that the Father’s own characteristics reside in the Son, and that the attributes conceived of the Father have been impressed upon or given to the Son, being nothing other than what the Father Himself is. Thus, he wishes Him to be all the things he mentioned before. For he does not conceive of an image made of colors, nor does he introduce some third party as a painter, who—because the Son differs from the Father—paints His qualities elsewhere through colors and calls this a “Son.” – Epiphanius of Salamis, Panarion, Heresy 72 (Against the Marcellians)

And here we, concerning the Scripture which confesses the Son to be the “image of the invisible God,” have accurately discerned the power of divine Scripture by divine gift—the Scripture that says to the Pharisees, “You know neither the Scriptures nor the power of God.” We understand, therefore, that this relationship [of being an image] is twofold, and we take our illustration from human experience to demonstrate this concept. For an “image” of a human being is also spoken of in two ways: one is similar, and yet not similar. One kind is modeled through colors, while the other is through generative co-essentiality, just as a begotten son reflects the nature of his father, being found to be an exact likeness by virtue of identity, co-essentiality, and precise impression. Thus, to us, the Only-begotten Son of God is identical to and equal with the deity and dignity of the Father by virtue of being His true and unaltered—indeed, unalterable—image, as a Son truly and co-essentially begotten from the Father. The same also applies to the Holy Spirit: because He proceeds from the Father, even though He is not begotten, due to the unique Only-begotten status of the Son. – Epiphanius of Salamis, Panarion, Heresy 75 (Against Aerius)

O holy Trinity, counted as three; Trinity counted in one name. For it is not called a Monad and a Dyad, nor a Monad and a Monad, but a Monad in Trinity and a Trinity in Monad—one God, of one form and one name: the Father in the Son, the Son in the Father, together with the Holy Spirit. But call for me witnesses of the truth; call for me the youths who were saved from the furnace of Babylon, who were deemed worthy to be cast into the fire yet were not consumed. Nor did they extinguish the fire, lest they be thought to have contrived some strange wonder by their own ingenuity; rather, they remained in the fire and yet were not consumed because of their right faith. Through them God teaches us what things are created and what are uncreated; what things are made and what things are unmade; what things always exist, and what things derive their existence from them and have come into being. These youths, having been saved, desired to show a thankful disposition toward the God who had saved them, in whom they had hoped from the beginning and concerning whom they had never doubted. Nor did they bow their necks before an image, nor before the arrogance of a king and a tyrant. And when they wished to offer something to God, having searched the depths in their hearts through the Holy Spirit, being holy men, and having considered heaven and all that is in it, and the earth and all that is upon it, they judged that all such things were unworthy to be offered to God as a gift. For they did not have authority to offer to God things that were above themselves. Therefore, desiring according to what was fitting and according to their authority to honor God only with hymns—for this is what is written: “Offer a sacrifice of praise,” and “A sacrifice of praise shall glorify Me”— already passing from the old covenant into the new, being prompted by the Holy Spirit, and having no need of animal sacrifices or burnt offerings, they say: “There is no place for offering firstfruits, nor sacrifice, nor altar,” since all these things had been taken away. – Epiphanius of Salamis, Anchoratus, part 16

And in this matter, my beloved children, keep it in mind not to set up icons in churches, or in the cemeteries of the saints, but always have God in your hearts through remembrance. Do not even have icons in private houses. For it is not permissible for the Christian to let his eyes wander or indulge in reveries. – Epiphanius, Testament to Citizens, As cited by the Synod of Hieria in 754 AD [Mansi, Volume 13, page 292DE]

John Chrysostom (347-407 AD):

You see, it was necessary that the truth be sketched out ahead of time in shadow. Notice, I ask you, dearly beloved, how everything was prefigured in shadow: an only-begotten son in that case, an only-begotten in this; dearly loved in that case, dearly loved in this. “This is my beloved son;” Scripture says, in fact, “in whom I have found satisfaction.” (Matthew 3:17) The former was offered as a burnt offering by his father, and the latter his Father surrendered. Paul too shouts aloud in the words, “He who in fact did not spare his own Son but handed him over for the sake of us all—how will he not also grant us every gift along with him?” (Romans 8:32) Up to this point there is shadow, but now the truth of things is shown to be more excellent. This rational lamb, you see, was offered for the whole world, he purified the whole world; he freed human beings from error and led them forward to the truth; he made earth into heaven, not by altering the nature of the elements but by transferring life in heaven to human beings on earth. Through him all worship of demons is made pointless; through him people no longer worship stone and wood, nor do those endowed with reason bend the knee to material things—instead, all error has been abolished and the light of truth has shone brightly on the world. Do you see the superiority of the truth? Do you see what shadow is, on the one hand, and truth, on the other? – John Chrysostom, Homily 47 on Genesis

Paul, discoursing as we showed of the dignity of the Son, says these words: “Who is the Image of the invisible God.” Whose image then will you have Him be? God’s? Then he is exactly like the one to whom you assign Him. For if [He is] as a man’s image, say so, and I will have done with you as a madman. But if as God and God’s Son, [He is] God’s image, he shows the exact likeness. Then why has no angel anywhere been called either image or son, but man both? Why, because in the former case indeed the exaltedness of their nature might presently have thrust the many into this impiety; but in the other case the mean and low nature is a pledge of security against this, and will not allow any, even should they desire it, to suspect anything of the kind, nor to bring down the Word so low. For this cause, where the meanness is great, the Scripture boldly asserts the honor, but where the nature is higher, it forbears. The Image of the Invisible is itself also invisible, and invisible in like manner, for otherwise it would not be an image. For an image, so far as it is an image, even among us, ought to be exactly similar, as, for example, in respect of the features and the likeness. But here indeed among us, this is by no means possible; for human art fails in many respects, or rather fails in all, if you examine with accuracy. But where God is, there is no error, no failure. But if a creature: how is He the Image of the Creator? For neither is a horse the image of a man. If the Image mean not exact likeness to the Invisible, what hinders the Angels also from being His Image? For they too are invisible; but not to one another: but the soul is invisible: but because it is invisible, it is simply on that account an image, and not in such sort as he and angels are images. – John Chrysostom, Homily 3 on Colossians

Painters imitate nature by their art, and mixing their colors, they paint the images of visible bodies, and they make men, and irrational animals, and trees, and wars, and battles, and torrents of blood, and spears, and breastplates, and shields, and kings, and private citizens, and a royal throne, and a king sitting, and a barbarian in subjection, and a sharpened spear point, and flowing rivers, and variegated plains, and simply imitating all visible things through their art, they provide a spectacle for those who look. So too the prophets are certain painters of virtue and vice. For they too paint with words the sinner, the just man, the penitent, the one who stands, the one who falls, the one who rises, the one who is shaken. And just as painters depict wars and slaughters, so too they depict sin sometimes attacking, sometimes being cast down, and demons again, now warring, now being warred against, and the devil sometimes plotting, sometimes also being conquered. Since, therefore, their art is such, let us learn it with precision. For when we see the paintings of artists, we go away having gained nothing. For what benefit is it to me to see an image of a king and a consul? For I can neither become a king, nor do I wish to. What benefit then is there for me from a spectacle, for which I have no desire, for which if I should desire it, I am punished? What benefit is it for me to see a rich man? If I am poor, I envy; if I am rich, I am envied. Again suffering the same things, I also lament. Leave those images, and look upon this spectacle. If I see a consul, what is that to me? If I see a sinner who has fallen and risen again, the spectacle becomes for me a subject of instruction. If I see a just man standing, the spectacle leads me by the hand to philosophy. From the spectacle I learn the battle, and I am taught the victory. If I see a just man being tripped up, again I become wiser from the spectacle. But all these things have not been said by me simply or idly, but because the image of the psalm read today leads us to this subject of instruction. For what does the prophet say? Have mercy on me, O God, according to your great mercy; and according to the multitude of your compassions blot out my iniquity. This is the image. For I call the psalm an image. For I see different persons in the psalm: sin attacking and being slain, repentance standing by and fighting on God’s side, loving-kindness shining from above, providing philosophy, and having many fountains of tears from confession. These are the persons of the image. But before I begin the psalm, it is necessary to relate its inscription to you more accurately. For just as images have inscriptions, so also it is with the psalms. For the images standing above have below them purple tablets, [saying] who the king is, and of whom, and what war he has won; but upon the psalm the inscription is placed above, [saying] what the subject is, and what the teaching is, and what the root is, and for what reason the psalm was spoken. – Pseudo John Chrysostom, On Psalm 50 Homily 1, chapter 1

Now there are some who say that the words, “the covetous man is an idolater,” are hyperbolical. However, the statement is not hyperbolical, it is true. How, and in what way? Because the covetous man apostatizes from God, just as the idolater does. And lest you should imagine this is a bare assertion, there is a declaration of Christ which says, “You cannot serve God and Mammon.” Matthew 6:24 If then it is not possible to serve God and Mammon, they who serve Mammon have thrown themselves out of the service of God; and they who have denied His sovereignty, and serve lifeless gold, it is plain enough that they are idolaters. “But I never made an idol,” a man will say, “nor set up an altar, nor sacrificed sheep, nor poured libations of wine; no, I came into the church, and lifted up my hands to the Only-begotten Son of God; I partake of the mysteries, I communicate in prayer, and in everything else which is a Christian’s duty. How then,” he will say, “am I a worshiper of idols?” Yes, and this is the very thing which is the most astonishing of all, that when you have had experience, and hast tasted the lovingkindness of God, and hast seen that the Lord is gracious Psalm 34:8, you should abandon Him who is gracious, and take to yourself a cruel tyrant, and should pretend to be serving Him, while in reality you have submitted yourself to the hard and galling yoke of covetousness. You have not yet told me of your own duty done, but only of your Master’s gifts. For tell me, I beseech you, whence do we judge of a soldier? Is it when he is on duty guarding the king, and is fed by him, and called the king’s own, or is it when he is minding his own affairs and interests? To pretend to be with him, and to be attentive to his interests, while he is advancing the cause of the enemy, we declare to be worse than if he breaks away from the king’s service, and joins the enemy. Now then you are doing despite to God, just as an idolater does, not with your own mouth singly, but with the ten thousands of those whom you have wronged. Yet you will say, “an idolater he is not.” But surely, whenever they say, “Oh! That Christian, that covetous fellow,” then not only is he himself committing outrage by his own act, but he frequently forces those also whom he has wronged to use these words; and if they use them not, this is to be set to the account of their reverence.

Do we not see that such is the fact? What else is an idolater? Or does not he too worship passions, oftentimes not mastering his passions? I mean, for example, when we say that the pagan idolater worships idols, he will say, “No, but it is Venus,” or “it is Mars.” And if we say, “Who is this Venus?” The more modest among them will say, “It is pleasure.” Or what is this Mars? “It is wrath.” And in the same way do you worship Mammon. If we say, “Who is this Mammon?” It is covetousness, and this you are worshiping. “I worship it not,” you will say. Why not? Because you do not bow yourself down? Nay, but as it is, you are far more a worshiper in your deeds and practices; for this is the higher kind of worship. And that you may understand this, look in the case of God; who more truly worship Him, they who merely stand up at the prayers, or they who do His will? Clearly enough, these latter. The same also is it with the worshipers of Mammon; they who do his will, they truly are his worshipers. However, they who worship the passions are oftentimes free from the passions. One may see a worshiper of Mars oftentimes governing his wrath. But this is not true of you; you make yourself a slave to your passion.

You have seen that the expression is no hyperbole. Would you hear again another argument, to teach you how covetousness is idolatry, and more shocking than idolatry? Idolaters worship (προσκυνοῦσι) the creation of God (“for they worshipped (ἐσεβάσθησαν),” it is said, “and served the creation rather than the Creator”) Romans 1:25; but you are worshiping (προσκυνεῖς) a creation of your own. For God made not covetousness but your own insatiable appetite invented it. And look at the madness and folly. They that worship idols, honor also the idols they worship; and if any one speak of them with disrespect or ridicule, they stand up in their defense; whereas you, as if in a sort of intoxication, are worshiping (προσκυνεῖς) an object, which is so far from being free from accusation, that it is even full of impiety. So that you, even more than they, excel in wickedness. You can never have it to say as an excuse, that it is no evil. If even they are in the highest degree without excuse, yet are you in a far higher, who art forever censuring covetousness, and reviling those who devote (θεραπεύοντας) themselves to it, and who yet does serve (δουλεύοντας) and obey it.

We will examine, if you please, whence idolatry took its rise. A certain wise man (Wisdom 14:16) tells us, that a certain rich man afflicted with untimely mourning for his son, and having no consolation for his sorrow, consoled his passion in this way: having made a lifeless image of the dead, and constantly gazing at it, he seemed through the image to have his departed one still; while certain flatterers, whose God was their belly (Philippians 3:19), treating the image with reverence in order to do him honor, carried on the custom into idolatry. So then it took its rise from weakness of soul, from a senseless custom, from extravagance. – John Chrysostom, Homily 18 on Ephesians

• Iconodules say, “Kissing an icon is kind of like kissing a photograph of your dead relative.” Yeah, that’s how idolatry started out! That custom of consoling yourself with pictures comes from “weakness of soul, senselessness, and extravagance,” according to Chrysostom.

“The idols of the nations are of silver and gold, the work of human hands. They have mouths, but will not speak; they have eyes, but will not see; they have ears, but will not hear; they have noses, but will not smell; they have hands, but will not feel; they have feet, but will not walk; they will make no sound in their throat. Let their makers be like them” (Psalm 115:4-8). In Psalm 105, in describing their madness, he said, “They sacrificed their sons and daughters to the demons,” whereas in the present psalm it is their insensitivity in clinging fast to lifeless materials. He takes issue with all their limbs, making the satire more comprehensive. Then he makes an additional comment: Let their makers be like them, and all who trust in them. — John Chrysostom, Commentary on Psalm 115

For this reason, after saying, “Fear him who is able to destroy both soul and body in gehenna,” He says again, “I too will deny him.” Thus also Paul does, continually mindful of gehenna. 4. Having then anointed the hearer through all things (for He both opened the heavens to him, and established that fearful tribunal, and showed the theater of the angels, and the proclamation of the crowns in these things, from this preparing much ease for the word of piety), finally, lest the proclamation be hindered by them becoming cowards, He commands them to be prepared for the very slaughters themselves; so that they may learn that those who remain in error will also pay the penalty for their plot. Let us therefore despise death, even if the time that demands it is not at hand; for we will be translated into a much better life. But the body is destroyed? And for this reason one should especially rejoice, that death is destroyed, and mortality perishes, not the substance of the body. For if you were to see a statue being melted down, you would not call what is happening destruction, but a better construction. Reason this way also concerning the body, and do not weep. For then one should have wept, if it remained in punishment. “But,” one says, “this should have happened without the bodies being destroyed, and that they should have remained whole.” And what would this have advantaged either the living or the departed? How long are you lovers of the body? How long are you riveted to the earth and gaping after shadows? Why, what good would this have done? Or rather, what harm would it not have done? For did our bodies not decay, in the first place the greatest of all evils, pride, would have continued with many. For if even while this is going on, and worms gushing out, many have earnestly sought to be gods; what would not have been the result did the body continue?

In the second place, it would not be believed to be of earth; for if, its end witnessing this, some yet doubt; what would they not have suspected if they did not see this? Thirdly, the bodies would have been excessively loved; and most men would have become more carnal and gross; and if even now some cleave to men’s tombs and coffins, after that themselves have perished, what would they not have done, if they had even their image preserved? Fourthly, they would not have earnestly desired the things to come. Fifthly, they that say the world is eternal, would have been more confirmed, and would have denied God as Creator. Sixthly, they would not have known the excellence of the soul, and how great a thing is the presence of a soul in a body. Seventhly, many of them that lose their relations would have left their cities, and have dwelt in the tombs, and have become frantic, conversing continually with their own dead. For if even now men form to themselves images, since they cannot keep the body (for neither is it possible, but whether they will or not it glides and hurries from them), and are riveted to the planks of wood; what monstrous thing would they not then have devised? To my thinking, the generality would have even built temples for such bodies, and they that are skilled in such sorceries would have persuaded evil spirits to speak through them; since at least even now, they that venture on the arts of necromancy attempt many things more out of the way than these. And how many idolatries would not have arisen from hence? When men even after the dust and ashes, are yet eager in those practices.

God therefore, to take away all our extravagances, and to teach us to stand off from all earthly things, destroys the bodies before our eyes. For even he that is enamored of bodies, and is greatly affected at the sight of a beautiful damsel, if he will not learn by discourse the deformity of that substance, shall know it by the very sight. Yea, many of the like age with her whom he loves, and oftentimes also fairer, being dead, after the first or second day, have emitted an ill savor, and foul matter, and decay with worms. Imagine then what sort of beauty you love, and what sort of elegance has power so to disturb you. But if bodies did not decay, this would not be well known: but as evil spirits run unto men’s graves, so also many of our lovers, continually sitting by the tombs, would have received evil spirits in their soul, and would quickly have perished in this grievous madness. – John Chrysostom, Homily 34 on Matthew, chapter 4

• So much for incorruptible saints!

But to show that many would be too often ready to imagine things of them above human nature, unless they saw them enduring such afflictions, hear how Paul was afraid on this very point; “For though I would desire to glory, I shall not be a fool, but now I forbear, lest any man should think of me above that which he seeth me to be, or that he heareth of me.” But what is it that he means? I am able, he declares, to speak of far greater miracles; but I am unwilling; lest the magnitude of the miracles should raise too high a notion of me among men. For this reason Peter also, when they had restored the lame man, and all were wondering at them, in order to restrain the people, and persuade them that they had exhibited nothing of this power of themselves, or from their native strength, says, “Why look ye so earnestly on us, as though by our own power or holiness we had made this man to walk?” And again at Lystra, the people were not only filled with astonishment, but led forth bulls, after crowning them with garlands, and were preparing to offer sacrifice to Paul and Barnabas. Observe the malice of the Devil. By those very same persons through whom the Lord was at work, to purge out ungodliness from the world, by the same did that enemy try to introduce it, again persuading them to take men for gods; which was what he had done in former times. And this is especially that which introduced the principle and root of idolatry. For many after having had success in wars, and set up trophies, and built cities, and done divers other benefits of this kind to the people of those times, came to be esteemed gods by the multitude, and were honoured with temples, and altars; and the whole catalogue of the Grecian gods is made up of such men. That this, therefore, may not be done towards the Saints, God permitted them constantly to be banished,—to be scourged,—to fall into diseases; that the abundance of bodily infirmity, and the multiplicity of those temptations, might convince those who were then with them, both that they were men, who wrought such wonders, and that they contributed nothing of their own power; but that it was mere grace, that wrought through them all these miracles. – John Chrysostom, Homily 1 On the Statues, chapter 17

For a dreadful, a dreadful thing is the love of money, it disables both eyes and ears, and makes men worse to deal with than a wild beast, allowing a man to consider neither conscience, nor friendship, nor fellowship, nor the salvation of his own soul, but having withdrawn them at once from all these things, like some harsh mistress, it makes those captured by it its slaves. And the dreadful part of so bitter a slavery is, that it persuades them even to be grateful for it; and the more they become enslaved, the more does their pleasure increase; and in this way especially the malady becomes incurable, in this way the monster becomes hard to conquer. This made Gehazi a leper instead of a disciple and a prophet; this destroyed Ananias and her with him; this made Judas a traitor; this corrupted the rulers of the Jews, who received gifts, and became the partners of thieves. This has brought in ten thousand wars, filling the ways with blood, the cities with wailings and lamentations. This has made meals to become impure, and tables accursed, and has filled food with transgression; therefore has Paul called it idolatry (Colossians 3:5), and not even so has he deterred men from it. And why calls he it idolatry? Many possess wealth, and dare not use it, but consecrate it, handing it down untouched, not daring to touch it, as though it were some dedicated thing. And if at any time they are forced to do so, they feel as though they had done something unlawful. Besides, as the Greek carefully tends his graven image, so thou entrusts your gold to doors and bars; providing a chest instead of a shrine, and laying it up in silver vessels. But thou dost not bow down to it as he to the image? Yet you show all kind of attention to it.

Again, he would rather give up his eyes or his life than his graven image. So also would those who love gold. But, says one, I worship not the gold. Neither does he, he says, worship the image, but the devil that dwells in it; and in like manner thou, though thou worship not the gold, yet you worship that devil who springs on your soul, from the sight of the gold and your lust for it. For more grievous than an evil spirit is the lust of money-loving, and many obey it more than others do idols. For these last in many things disobey, but in this case they yield everything, and whatever it tells them to do, they obey. What says it? Be at war with all, it says, at enmity with all, know not nature, despise God, sacrifice to me yourself, and in all they obey. To the graven images they sacrifice oxen and sheep, but avarice says, Sacrifice to me your own soul, and the man obeys. Do you see what kind of altars it has, what kind of sacrifices it receives? The covetous shall not inherit the Kingdom of God, but not even so do they fear (1 Corinthians 6:10). Yet this desire is weaker than all the others, it is not inborn, nor natural, (for then it would have been placed in us at the beginning;) but there was no gold at the beginning, and no man desired gold.

… Let us think of those who have gone before us. Do not their possessions stand, preserving nothing but their name; such an one’s bath, such an one’s suburban seat and lodging? Do we not, when we behold them, straightway groan, when we consider what toil he endured, what rapine committed? And now he is nowhere seen, but others luxuriate in his possessions, men whom he never expected would do so, perhaps even his enemies, while he is suffering extremest punishment. These things await us also; for we shall certainly die, and shall certainly have to submit to the same end. How much wrath, tell me, how much expense, how many enmities these men incurred; and what the gain? Deathless punishment, and the having no consolation; and the being not only while alive, but when gone, accused by all? What? When we see the images of the many laid up in their houses, shall we not weep the more? Of a truth well said the Prophet, Verily, every man living disquiets himself in vain (Psalm 39:11); for anxiety about such things is indeed disquiet, disquiet and superfluous trouble. But it is not so in the everlasting mansions, not so in those tabernacles. Here one has labored, and another enjoys; but there each shall possess his own labors, and shall receive a manifold reward. Let us press forward to get that possession, there let us prepare for ourselves houses, that we may rest in Christ Jesus our Lord, with whom to the Father and the Holy Ghost be glory, for ever and ever. Amen. – John Chrysostom, Homily 65 on John, commentary on John 12

For tell me what have you to say to the Greek, if you plunder, and be covetous? Will you say, “Forsake idolatry, acknowledge God, and draw not near to gold and silver”? Will he not then make a jest of you, and say, “Talk to yourself first in this way”? For it is not the same thing for a Gentile to practise idolatry, and a Christian to commit this same sin. For how are we to draw others away from that idolatry if we draw not ourselves away from this? For we are nearer related to ourselves than our neighbor is, and so when we persuade not ourselves, how are we to persuade others? For if he that does not rule well over his own house, will not take care of the Church either (1 Timothy 3:5), how shall he that does not rule even over his own soul be able to set others right? Now do not tell me, that you do not worship an image of gold, but make this clear to me, that you do not do those things which gold bids you. For there be different kinds of idolatry, and one holds mammon lord, and another his belly his god, and a third some other most baneful lust. But, you do not sacrifice oxen to them as the Gentiles do. Nay, but what is far worse, you butcher your own soul. But you do not bow the knee and worship. Nay, but with greater obedience you do all that they command you, whether it be your belly, or money, or the tyranny of lust. For this is just what makes Gentiles disgusting, that they made gods of our passions; calling lust Venus, and anger Mars, and drunkenness Bacchus. If then you do not grave images as did they, yet you do with great eagerness bow under the very same passions, when you make the members of Christ members of an harlot, and plunge yourself into the other deeds of iniquity (1 Corinthians 6:15). I therefore exhort you to lay to heart the exceeding unseemliness hereof, and to flee from idolatry:— for so does Paul name covetousness— and to flee not only covetousness in money, but that in evil desire, and that in clothing, and that in food, and that in everything else: since the punishment we shall have to suffer if we obey not God’s laws is much severer. For, He says, the servant that knew his Lord’s will, and did it not, shall be beaten with many stripes (Luke 12:47). With a view then to escaping from this punishment, and being useful both to others and to ourselves, let us drive out all iniquity from our soul and choose virtue. – John Chrysostom, Homily 6 on Romans, Commentary on Romans 3:8

For terrible is the love of money, terrible; and it cripples eyes and ears, and makes men more savage than a beast, not conscience, not allowing one to think of friendship, or fellowship, or the salvation of one’s own soul, but having completely turned them away from all things, it makes slaves of those it has captured, like some harsh tyranny. And the terrible thing about such a bitter slavery is that it even persuades them to be grateful; and the more they serve it, the more the pleasure increases. And in this way especially the disease becomes incurable, in this way the beast becomes hard to capture. This made Gehazi a leper instead of a disciple and a prophet; this destroyed Ananias and his companions; this made Judas a traitor; this corrupted the rulers of the Jews, who took bribes and became partners of thieves. This has brought in countless wars; filling the roads with blood, and the cities with lamentations and wailing. This also has caused suppers to become unclean and tables accursed, and filled meals with lawlessness. For this reason Paul called it idolatry. But not even so did he cause fear. But why does he say idolatry? Many have money, and do not dare to use it, but dedicate it, passing it on untouched to their descendants and from their descendants, as if not daring to touch some votive offerings. And if they are ever forced to, they are disposed as if they had done something unlawful. And in another way too, just as the Greek reveres the wooden image, so you entrust your gold to doors and bolts, preparing a chest instead of a temple and placing it among silver vessels. But you do not worship (προσκυνεῖς) it, as he does the wooden image? But you show every service toward it. Again, he would gladly give up his eyes and his soul, rather than the wooden image. The same is true for those who love gold. “But I do not worship (προσκυνῶ) gold,” one says. Nor does he worship (προσκυνεῖ) the idol, he says, but the demon dwelling within. So too you, even if you do not worship (προσκυνῇς) the gold, you worship the demon that leaps upon your soul from the sight of the gold and from the desire for it. For the desire of avarice is more grievous than a demon, and many obey this more than others obey idols. For the latter often disobey, but the former yield in all things, and whatever it says to do, they obey. – John Chrysostom, Commentary on John, Homily 65

Do you see that suffering wrong consists in doing wrong, but that to suffer wrongfully is to receive a benefit? For tell me, if any one were to revile his rulers, if he were to insult those in power, whom does he injure? Himself, or them? Clearly himself. Then he who insults a ruler insults not him, but himself — and he that insults a Christian does he not through him insult Christ? By no means, you say. What do you say? He that casts a stone at the images of the king (Emperor), at whom does he cast a stone? Is it not at himself? Then does he who casts a stone at the image of an earthly king, cast a stone at himself, and does not he who insults the image of God (for man is the image of God) injure himself? Then if he who stones the image of an earthly emperor stones himself, does not he who insults the image of Christ (for man is the image of God) wrong himself? For how long will we love money? For I will not cease crying out against them; for these things are the causes of all evils. Until when will we not have our fill of this insatiable desire? What good does gold have? I am astonished at the matter! Truly it is some kind of sorcery, that gold and silver are so highly valued among us. Therefore, we have no regard for our souls, but great is the care for lifeless images (εἰκόνων). From where did this disease enter the world? Who will be able to destroy it? What word can cut out this harsh beast, and corrupt it with utter destruction? The desire has been sown in the minds of men, and even of those who seem to be religious (εὐλαβείᾳ). Let us be ashamed at the evangelical precepts; the words lie in Scripture only, but are nowhere shown in deeds. – John Chrysostom, Homily 10 on First Thessalonians 5:17-18

“Having a form of godliness, but denying the power thereof.” In the Epistle to the Romans, he says somewhat on this wise, Having the form of knowledge and of the truth in the law Romans 2:20, where he speaks in commendation of it: but here he speaks of this sin as an evil beyond all other defects. And why is this? Because he does not use the words in the same signification. For an image is often taken to signify a likeness; but sometimes a thing without life, and worthless. Thus he says himself in his Epistle to the Corinthians, A man ought not to cover his head, forasmuch as he is the image and glory of God. 1 Corinthians 11:7 But the Prophet says, Man walks in an image. Psalm 39:9, And the Scripture sometimes takes a lion to represent royalty, as, He couched as a lion, and as a lion’s cub, who shall raise him up? Genesis 49:9, And sometimes to signify rapacity, as, a ravening and a roaring lion. Psalm 22:13 And we ourselves do the same. For as things are compounded and varied in themselves, they are fitly adduced for various images and examples. As when we would express our admiration of a beautiful woman, we say, she is like a picture; and when we admire a painting, we say that it speaks, that it breathes. But we do not mean to express the same thing, but in one case to mark likeness, in the other beauty. So here with respect to form, in the one passage, it means a model, or representation, a doctrine, or pattern of godliness; in the other, something that is lifeless, a mere appearance, show, and hypocrisy. Faith therefore, without works, is fitly called a mere form without the power. For as a fair and florid body, when it has no strength, is like a painted figure, so is a right faith apart from works. For let us suppose any one to be covetous, a traitor, heady, and yet to believe aright; of what advantage is it, if he wants all the qualities becoming a Christian, if he does not the works that characterize godliness, but outdoes the Greeks in impiety, when he is a mischief to those with whom he associates, causes God to be blasphemed, and the doctrine to be slandered by his evil deeds? – John Chrysostom, Homily 8 on 2 Timothy

You who have riches have purchased for a hundred pieces of gold, or even more, but the poor man for a trifling sum of silver. Do you perceive the loss? No, for your pride will not let you see it. Would you have us make out this account in the case of the gold ornaments too, which men put alike about their horses and their wives? For besides the other evils, the possession of money makes fools of men; they account their wives and horses to be worthy of the same honor, and the ornamentation of both is the same; and they would make themselves finer by the same means as the very beasts that carry them, or as the very skins of the awnings, wherein they are borne. What now is the use of decking out a mule or a horse with gold? Or the lady, that has such a weight of gold and jewels about her person, what does she gain? But the golden ornaments are never worn out, he answers. Assuredly this also is said that in the baths and many places both precious stones and gold ornaments lose much of their value. But be it so, and grant that they are not injured, tell me, what is the gain? And how is it when they drop out, and are lost? Is there no loss sustained? And how when they draw down upon you envy and intrigues? Is there no loss then? For when they do the wearer no good, but rather inflame the eyes of the envious, and act as an incitement to the robber, do they not become loss? And again, say, when a man may use them for a serviceable purpose, but is unable on account of the extravagance of his wife, and is obliged to starve and to stint himself, that he may see her arrayed in gold, is it not a matter of loss? For it was on this account that goods have their name from use, not that we should use them thus like goldsmiths’ samples, but that we should do some good therewith; so then when love of gold does not allow this, is not the whole thing loss? For he that dares not use them forbears the use as if they were another’s property, and there is no use of them in any way.

Again, how is it when we erect splendid and spacious mansions, decorated with columns, marbles, porticos, arcades, and in every possible way, setting images and statues everywhere? Many indeed even call demons out of these, i.e. the images, but let us omit the examination of those points. What too is the meaning of the gilded ceiling? Does it not supply the same need as to him, whose house is on a moderate scale? “But there is great delight in it,” he says. Yes, for the first or second day, and afterwards, none at all, but it stands merely for nothing. For if the sun does not strike us with wonder, from its being customary, much more do works of art fail, and we only look at them like things of clay. For tell me, what does a range of pillars contribute to make your dwelling superior to others, or the finest statues, or the gilding spread over the wall? Nothing; rather, these come of luxury and insolence, and overweening pride and folly; for everything there ought to be necessary and useful, not superfluous things. Do you see that the thing is loss? Do you see that it is superfluous and unprofitable? For if it supplies no further use or delight, (and it does, in the course of time, bring satiety,) it is nothing else than loss, and vainglory is the hindrance, which will not let us see this.

Did Paul then forsake those things which he counted gain, and shall not we even quit our loss, for Christ’s sake? How long shall we be riveted to the earth? How long till we shall look up to heaven? Do ye not mark the aged, what little perception they have of the past? Do ye not mark those that are finishing their course, both men in age, and men in youth? Do ye not see persons in the midst of life bereft of them? Why are we so wedded to unstable objects? Why are we linked to things that are shifting? How long before we lay hold of the things that last? What would not the old give, were it granted them to divest themselves of their old age? How irrational then to wish to return to our former youth, and gladly to give everything for the sake of this, that we might become younger, and yet when it is ours to receive a youth that knows no old age, a youth too, which, joined with great riches, has far more of spirit, to be unwilling to give up a little trifle, but to hold fast things that contribute not a whit to the present life. They can never rescue you from death, they have no power to drive away disease, to stay old age, or any one of those events, which happen by necessity and according to the law of nature. And do you still hold to them? Tell me, what do you gain? Drunkenness, gluttony, pleasures contrary to nature and various in kind, which are far worse torturers than the hardest masters. – John Chrysostom, Homily 10 on Philippians 3:1-3

The same thing is done in our time also. Even now is there a king of the Babylonish furnace, even now he kindles a flame fiercer than that. There is even now such an image, and one who gives command to admire it. At his side are satraps and soldiers and bewitching music. And many gaze in admiration upon this image, so varied, so great. For somewhat of the same kind of thing as that image is covetousness, which does not despise even iron, but unlike as the materials are whereof it is composed, it gives command to admire all, both brass and iron, and things much more ordinary than they.

But as these things are, so also even now are there some who are emulous of these children: “who say, your gods we serve not, and your images we worship not;” but both the furnace of poverty we endure and all other distress, for the sake of God’s laws. And the wealthy for their part, even as those at that time, oftentimes, worship this image too and are burnt. But those who possess nothing despite even this, and although in poverty, are more in the dew than those who live in affluence….

But let us hear also what they say, that from this also we may learn their lofty spirit (Daniel 3:17): “There is a God in heaven able to deliver us:” they take no care for themselves, but even when about to be burned the glory of God is all their thought. For what they say comes to this, “Lest perchance if we are burnt you should charge God with weakness, we now declare unto you accurately our whole doctrine. There is a God in heaven, not such as this image here on earth, this lifeless and mute thing, but able to snatch even from the midst of the burning fiery furnace.” – John Chrysostom, Homily 18 on First Corinthians 6:5-6

Why then bring upon thyself that, from which the very opposite is wont to befall thee. Yea, if thou wilt be glorified, despise glory; so shalt thou be more illustrious than any. Why feel as Nebuchadnezzar felt? For he too set up an image, thinking from wood and from a senseless figure to procure to himself an increase of fame, and the living would fain appear more glorious by the help of that which hath no life. Seest thou the excess of his madness; how, thinking to do honor, he rather offered insult, to himself? For when it appears that he is relying rather on the lifeless thing, than on himself and the soul that lives in him, and when for this cause he advances the stock unto such high precedence, how can he be other than ridiculous, endeavoring as he does to adorn himself, not by his way of living, but by planks of wood? Just as if a man should think proper to give himself airs, because of the pavement of his house, and his beautiful staircase rather than because he is a man. Him do many too amongst us imitate now. For as he for his image, so some men claim to be admired for their clothes, others for their house; or for their mules and chariots, and for the columns in their house. For inasmuch as they have lost their being as men, they go about gathering to themselves from other quarters such glory as is full of exceeding ridicule. But as to the noble and great servants of God, not by these means, but by such as best became them, even by such did they shine forth. – John Chrysostom, Homilies on Matthew, Homily 4, chapter 18

These men then let us also imitate. Because now too there is set up a golden image, even the tyranny of Mammon. But let us not give heed to the timbrels, nor to the flutes, nor to the harps, nor to the rest of the pomp of riches; yea, though we must needs fall into a furnace of poverty, let us choose it, rather than worship that idol, and there will be in the midst a moist whistling wind. Let us not then shudder at hearing of a furnace of poverty. For so too at that time they that fell into the furnace were shown the more glorious, but they that worshipped were destroyed. Only then all took place at once, but in this case some part will be accomplished here, some there, some both here and in the day that is to come. For they that have chosen poverty, in order that they might not worship mammon, will be more glorious both here and then, but they that have been rich unjustly here, shall then pay the utmost penalty. – John Chrysostom, Homilies on Matthew, Homily 4, chapter 19

• The Cathodox only recognize one aspect of the sin of bowing to King Nebuchadnezzar’s image. They say it’s wrong to worship a king as a deity, but they don’t recognize that the worship of mammon (that is, a golden statue) is another aspect of the sin, to say nothing of the fact that having people worship images of you already implies that you are divine. Christians do not bow down to golden images of any kind! Yet the Cathodox say it is only a sin to worship golden images of the wrong people. They say we CAN worship various golden images, even of Mary, and that worshiping Mammon is allowed in the correct circumstances! But when John Chrysostom made the analogy of worshiping a golden image when he says we ought not to worship wealth, he didn’t imagine that Christians would actually be worshiping literal golden images. He wouldn’t have used the analogy of a golden image to illustrate the worship of wealth if he had known you guys would be bowing down to actual golden images. He would have simply said, “Don’t bow down to golden images in the first place!”
• Second Council of Nicaea: “There should be images in the churches of the faithful, especially the image of our Lord Jesus Christ and of the Holy Mother of God, of every kind of material, both gold and silver and of every color, so that his incarnation may be set forth to all men.

Let us not therefore sit down without the furnace, feeling no pity towards the poor; lest the same befall us as then befell those executioners. For if you should go down to them, and take your stand with the children, the fire will no longer work you any harm; but if you should sit above and neglect them in the flame of their poverty, the flame will burn you up. Go down therefore into the fire, that you may not be burnt up by the fire; sit not down without the fire, lest the flame catch hold of you. For if it should find you among the poor, it will depart from you; but if alienated from them, it will run upon you quickly, and catch you. Do not therefore stand off from them that are cast in, but when the devil gives command to cast them that have not worshipped gold into the furnace of poverty, be not thou of them that cast others in, but of them that are cast in; that you may be of the number of the saved, and not of the burned. For indeed it is a most effectual dew, to be held in no subjection by desire of wealth, to be associate with poor persons. These are wealthier than all, who have trampled under foot the desire of riches. Forasmuch as those children too, by despising the king at that time, became more glorious than the king. And thou therefore, if you despise the things of the world, shall become more honorable than all the world; like those holy men, of whom the world was not worthy (Hebrews 11:38). – John Chrysostom, Homilies on Matthew, Homily 4, chapter 20

Actually, Moses and all the prophets were long dead in the body, but in their writings they had them. After all, if a person sets up a lifeless image of son or dear one and thinks that person, though dead, is present, and through the lifeless image he imagines him, much more do we enjoy the communion of the saints through the divine Scriptures, having in them images not of their bodies but of their souls, the words spoken by them being of their very souls. – John Chrysostom, Homilies on the Psalms, Homily on Psalm 146

“Because that which may be known of God is manifest in them, for God has showed it unto them.” But this glory they invested stocks and stones with. As then he which is entrusted with the goods of the king, and is ordered to spend them upon the king’s glory, if he waste these upon robbers, and harlots, and witches, and make these splendid out of the king’s stores, he is punished as having done the kingdom the greatest wrong. Thus they also who after having received the knowledge of God and of His glory, invested idols therewith, held the truth in unrighteousness, and, at least as far as was in their power, dealt unrighteously by the knowledge, by not using it upon fitting objects. Now, has what was said become clear to you, or must one make it still clearer? Perhaps it were needful to say somewhat more. What then is it which is here said? The knowledge of Himself God placed in men from the beginning. But this knowledge they invested stocks and stones with, and so dealt unrighteously to the truth, as far at least as they might. For it abides unchanged, having its own glory immutable. – John Chrysostom, Homily 3 on Romans, Commentary on Romans 1:19

“Because that, when they knew God, they glorified Him not as God.” This is the one greatest charge; and the second after it is their also worshipping idols, as Jeremy too in accusing them said, “This people has committed two evils: they have forsaken me the fountain of living water, and have dug for themselves broken cisterns” (Jeremiah 2:13). And then as a sign of their having known God, and not used their knowledge upon a fit object, he adduces this very thing, that they knew gods. Wherefore he adds, “because that, when they knew God, they glorified Him not as God.” And he names the cause through which they fell into such senselessness. What then is it? They trusted everything to their reasonings. Still he does not word it so, but in a much sharper language, but became vain in their reasonings, and their foolish heart was darkened. For as in a night without a moon, if any one attempt to go by a strange road, or to sail over a strange sea, so far will he be from soon reaching his destination, that he will speedily be lost. Thus they, attempting to go the way leading to Heaven, and having destroyed the light from their own selves, and, in lieu of it, trusted themselves to the darkness of their own reasoning, and seeking in bodies for Him who is incorporeal, and in shapes for Him who has no shape, underwent a most rueful shipwreck. But beside what has been said, he names also another cause of their error, when he says, “Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools.” – John Chrysostom, Homily 3 on Romans, Commentary on Romans 1:21

And what follows shows us further the equality in being; it says, you see, “‘Let us make a human being in our image and likeness.'” Here again, however, other heretics arise assailing the dogmas of the Church; they say, Look: he said, “‘In our image”‘ – and from these words they want to speak of the divine in human terms, which is the ultimate example of error, namely, to cast in human form him who is without shape, without appearance, without change, and to attribute limbs and forms to the one who has no body. What could match this madness, people not simply refusing to derive any profit from the teaching of the inspired Scriptures, but even incurring severe harm from them? – John Chrysostom, Homily 8 on Genesis, chapter 8

You see, in saying, ”’Let us make a human being in our image and likeness,'” he did not stop there, but through the following verse made clear to us what was the reason for choosing the word “image.” What in fact does the text go on to say? “‘Let them have control of the fish of the sea, the birds of heaven, and all the reptiles creeping on the earth.'” So “image” refers to the matter of control, not anything else. In other words, God created the human being as having control of everything on earth, and nothing on earth is greater than the human being, under whose authority everything falls. (10) Yet if, despite such great precision in terms, there are still those spoiling for a fight who would want to say “image” is used in terms of form, we will say to them: that means he is not only man but also woman, for both have the same form. But this would make no sense. I mean, listen to Paul’s words: “It is not proper for a man to cover his head, being image and glory of God, whereas the woman is man’s glory.” One is in command, the other is subordinate, just as God had also said to woman from the beginning, “your yearning will be for your husband, and he will be your master.” You see, since it is on the basis of command that the image was received and not on the basis of form, man commands everything whereas woman is subservient – hence Paul’s words about man, that he is constituted God’s image and glory, whereas woman is man’s glory. If, however, he had been speaking about form, he would not have distinguished between them, man and woman being identical in type, after all.– John Chrysostom, Homily 8 on Genesis, chapter 9-10

Such are the lives of the Greeks. They philosophized, but in vain. They made a show of a life of hardship, but of mere hardship, not looking to any beneficial end, but to vainglory, and to honor from the many. But what is the honor of the many? It is nothing, for if they themselves which render the honor perish, much more does the honor. He that renders honor to another, ought first to render it to himself; for if he gain not honor for himself, how can he ever render it to another? Whereas now we seek even honors from vile and despicable characters, themselves dishonorable, and objects of reproach. What kind of honor then is this? Perceive ye, how that all things are vanity of vanities? “Therefore,” says he, “in the vanity of their mind.” But further, is not their religion of this sort, wood and stone? He has made the sun to shine for a lamp to light us. Who will worship his own lamp? The sun supplies us with light, but where he cannot, a lamp can do it. Then why not worship your lamp? Nay, one will say, I worship the fire. Oh, how ridiculous! So great is the absurdity, and yet look again at another absurdity. Why extinguish the object of your worship? Why destroy, why annihilate your god? Wherefore do you not suffer your house to be filled with him? For if the fire be god, let him feed upon your body. Put not your god under the bottom of your kettle, or your cauldron. Bring him into your inner chambers, bring him within your silken draperies. Whereas not only do you not bring him in, but if by any accident he has found entrance, you drive him out from every place, you call everybody together, and, as though some wild beast had entered, you weep and wailest, and callest the presence of your god an overwhelming calamity. I have a God, and I do all I can to enshrine Him in my bosom, and I deem it my true bliss, not when He visits my dwelling, but when I can draw Him even to my heart. Do thou too draw the fire to your heart. This is folly and vanity. Fire is good for use, not for adoration; good for ministration and for service, to be my slave, not to be my master. It was made for me, not I for it. If you are a worshiper of fire, why recline upon your couch yourself, and order your cook to stand before your god? – John Chrysostom, Homily 12 on Ephesians

And that the cross is glory, hear Christ saying: “Father, glorify me with the glory which I had with you before the world was,” calling the cross glory. The cross is the sum of our salvation; the cross is the cause of countless good things. Through it, we who were formerly dishonored and cast out have now been received into the order of sons; through it, we no longer wander, but have come to know the truth; through it, we who formerly bowed down (προσκυνοῦντες) to wood and stones, have now come to know the creator of all things; through it, we who were slaves of sin have been led up to the freedom of righteousness; through it, the earth has at last become heaven. This has freed us from error, this has guided us to the truth, this has effected the reconciliation of God to men, this has drawn us up from the depth of wickedness, and led us up to the very summit of virtue, this has extinguished the error of the demons, this has destroyed their deceit. Through it, there is no longer smoke and the smell of burnt offerings and the shedding of the blood of irrational animals, but everywhere spiritual services, hymns and prayers; through it, demons flee, through it, the devil is put to flight, through it, human nature vies with the angelic way of life, through it, virginity is practiced on earth. – John Chrysostom, Homily 2 On the Cross and the Thief, chapter 1

And at the same time he teaches that the divine nature is present everywhere and is over all things. For since of all perceptible things the nature of the winds is the swiftest (for in an instant it runs from the west to the east, and from the east to the west), not finding another more precise image among perceptible things, he said that God is borne on the wings of the winds, indicating through these things that he is present everywhere. And we find that the God of all things appeared to the sons of Israel in a cloud, and in the tent he made his own appearance through a cloud. And indeed, when Solomon was dedicating the house, a cloud covered the house; and the Lord Christ on the mountain showed a bright cloud around himself to the three apostles; and as he was being taken up, a bright cloud received him from their eyes. “Who makes his angels spirits, and his ministers a flaming fire.” He showed him to be the creator not only of visible things, but also of invisible things. And he called them both spirits and fire, teaching through both what is powerful and what is swift. For the nature of the spirit is sharp; and the energy of fire is strong. – Pseudo John Chrysostom, On Psalms 101 & 107, part 12

• The Cathodox think that God’s invisible attributes and divine nature are clearly seen through lifeless images of man! But that is NOT what the fathers say Paul is referring to! They say Paul is referring to things God created Himself, and the most precise representation of God in ALL of creation is THE WIND! It is invisible! The word for “breath” is the same as “spirit,” because wind is a symbol of spirit. And how is it symbolic of God? We breathe it in to stay alive! It moves and directs things on earth without anyone seeing it. A perfect symbol of God. The next-best symbol of God is the sun.

Evil demons surrounded us, the ruler of this world laughing, treading upon us. The Only-Begotten of God came, he sent forth the rays of his presence, and immediately drove away the darkness; the king who is on the paternal throne came to us, having left the paternal throne (but when I say, having left, do not think of a change of place; for he himself fills heaven and earth; but I say this on account of the economy); he came to an enemy who hated him, who turned away from him, who could not bear even to see him, who blasphemed him every day. He saw him lying in a dung-heap, ulcerated by worms, possessed by fevers, by famine, having every form of sickness. For indeed a fever was vexing him, for this is evil desire, and inflammations lay upon him, for this is despair, and what is called bulimia possessed him, for this is greed, and putrefactions on all sides, for this is fornication, and blindness of the eyes, for this is idolatry, and deafness and paralysis, for this is to worship stones and wood and to speak to them, and great ugliness, for this is wickedness; something unpleasant, and a most grievous disease. He saw us speaking things worse again than those who are mad, and calling wood God, and likewise stone; he saw us in so great a wickedness, and he was not disgusted, he was not displeased, he did not turn away, he did not hate; for he was the Master, and he would not hate his own creation. – John Chrysostom, Homily 11 on Philippians

And again, in speaking of this slavery, he said: “The incense and the oblation will be abolished and, furthermore, on the holy place will be the abomination of desolation: and accomplishment shall be given to the desolation until the end of time” (Daniel 9:27). When you hear him say: “Until the end of time,” what else is left for you Jews to look forward to? “And furthermore.” What does this mean? “Furthermore,” that is, in addition to what he has said, that is, in addition to the destruction of the sacrifice and the oblation, there will be some other greater evil. What is that evil? “On the holy place will be the abomination of desolation.” By the holy place he means the temple; by the abomination of desolation he means the statue set up in the temple by Antiochus, who destroyed the city. And he went on to say: “Desolation until the end.” It is true that Christ came into the world according to the flesh long after the day of Antiochus Epiphanes, but when he prophesied the captivity to come, he showed that Daniel had predicted it. This was his reason for saying: “When you see the abomination of desolation which was spoken of by Daniel the prophet, standing in the holy place—let him who reads understand” (Matthew 24:15). The Jews called every image and statue made by man an abomination. So by his veiled reference to that statue, Daniel showed both when and under whom the captivity would take place. As I showed before, Josephus also assured us that these words were spoken about the Romans. – John Chrysostom, Discourse 5 Against Judaizing Christians, Section 10 (Fathers of the Church vol. 68:134-135)

Scripture is accustomed to call idols an abomination; hence also the statue standing upon the temple is called the abomination of desolation. “For when you see,” it says, “the abomination of desolation standing in the holy place; let the reader understand.” For since he led them away from being terrified by sensible things, he forbade them to make any image; and he called this an abomination, restraining them from afar from impiety; for “to abominate” is to hate with excess, as something unclean, as something accursed. Therefore, an abomination is called in Scripture that which is hateful and worthy of aversion. And every idol is such a thing. “And they worshipped what their own fingers had made. And a human bowed down, and a man was humbled.” For just as the worship of God leads to a height, so that of those idols humbles and brings down. For what is more wretched than a human who has fallen from salvation and has made the God of all an enemy, bowing to lifeless objects and serving stones? For God led us up to such an honor as to make us even higher than the heavens; but the devil was eager to bring down those who obey to such worthlessness, as to make them even more insensible than insensible things. Therefore, indeed, the prophet says: And a human bowed down, and a man was humbled. This accusation alone was sufficient to lead one who has a mind away from the disease. But since many people do not fear sins as much as punishments, he also brought on the chastisement, saying: I will not forgive them. I will not pardon, he says, I will not let go, I will not overlook, but I will demand justice and accountability for the things that have been transgressed. And now, enter into the rocks and hide yourselves in the earth from the face of the fear of the Lord. Having sufficiently ridiculed the folly of those who worship idols and having shown, from the manner of their creation, both their madness and the weakness of the idols, he again contends with his word, entrusting the examination of what has been said to the experience of the facts, and says: it was sufficient that they were made by men to show the folly of those being deceived; but since, as if stupefied by some drunkenness of impiety, they have been blinded to the manifest and clear facts, such evils will befall the city, so as to teach even the extremely insensible, how great is their weakness and how great is the power of God. – John Chrysostom, Commentary on Isaiah 2.9

• Chrysostom says that God forbade the Jews from making ANY image in order to restrain them at a distance from ever becoming idolaters again. In other words, that command was not given to Christians. All images are not inherently evil, but God forbade their existence in Israel to prevent idolatry from happening. The Cathodox are so stupid and deceptive that they think these statements must not be taken literally, since Moses and Bezalel and Solomon made images for the temple (which were invisible to outsiders, by the way), but they fail to see that these men were given special permission by God because they knew better than to bow to those images, and their construction had a mystical meaning – contemplation of the invisible!

Wherefore he also added this, saying: No one has ever seen God. What then shall we say to the most loud-voiced Isaiah who says: I saw the Lord sitting upon a throne, high and lifted up? what to John who bears witness to him that he said these things when he saw His glory? what to Ezekiel? For he too sees Him sitting upon the Cherubim; and what to Daniel? For he too says: The Ancient of days sat; and what to Moses himself who says: Show me Thy glory, that I may see Thee plainly? And Jacob from this received the name, being called Israel; for Israel is he who sees God. And others have seen Him. How then did John say, No one has ever seen God? Showing that all those things were of condescension, not a vision of the bare essence itself. For if they had seen the nature itself, they would not have beheld it in different ways. For it is simple and without form, and uncompounded, and uncircumscribed; it does not sit, nor stand, nor walk. For all these things belong to bodies. But how it is, He alone knows. And God the Father, revealing this through a certain prophet, said: I have multiplied visions, He says, and I was made like by the hands of prophets; that is, I condescended, I did not appear as that which I was. For since His Son was about to appear to us in true flesh, He trained them from above to see the essence of God, as it was possible for them to see. Since that which God is, not only have prophets not seen, but neither have angels, nor archangels; but if you ask them, you will hear them answering nothing about the essence, but only singing, Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will toward men. And if you desire to learn anything from the Cherubim or the Seraphim, you will hear the mystical hymn of sanctification, and that Heaven and earth are full of His glory. If you examine the powers above, you will find nothing else, than that they have one work, to praise God; For Praise Him, it says, all His powers. Therefore, only the Son sees Him, and the Holy Spirit. For how will the whole created nature be able to see the uncreated? For if we are not able to receive a clear vision simply of any incorporeal power, although it is created, and this has often been shown in the case of angels; much more of the essence that is both incorporeal and unbegotten. For this reason Paul also says, Whom no man has seen, nor can see. Does this special attribute, then, belong to the Father alone, and no longer to the Son? Far from it; but also to the Son. And that it belongs to Him too, hear Paul declaring this, and saying: Who is the image of the invisible God. And being the image of the invisible, He is Himself invisible; otherwise He would not be an image. But if elsewhere it says, God was manifested in the flesh, do not be surprised; because the manifestation was through the flesh, not indeed according to the essence. Since that He is invisible not only to men, but also to the powers above, Paul shows. For having said, that He was manifested in the flesh, he added, that he works with his tongue, emitting a voice sweeter and more useful than any cithara player, and any music. – John Chrysostom, Homily 1 on John

And what is greatest of all, that He gave this great and vast world not as a reward for labors, nor as a recompense for good deeds, but at the same time He formed us, and with this kingdom He honored our race. For, “Let us make man,” he says, “in our image and after our likeness.” What is, “In our image and after our likeness”? The image of rule, he says, and just as no one is higher than God in heaven, so let no one be higher than man on earth. – John Chrysostom, To the People of Antioch, Homily 7

For He drew him away from carnal things by saying, “That which is born of the Spirit is spirit.” But since he did not know what it was that he said, “That which is born of the Spirit is spirit,” He then transfers him to another image, neither leading him into the density of bodies, nor discoursing purely about incorporeal things (for that man was not able to receive it when he heard it), but having found something midway between a body and an incorporeal thing, the motion of the wind, from there He leads him up. For concerning it he says, “You hear its sound, but you do not know where it comes from, and where it goes.” And if he says, “It blows where it wills,” he does not say this as if the wind has some choice, but to show its natural motion which is unhindered and happens with power. For Scripture knows how to speak this way even about inanimate things, as when it says, “For the creation was subjected to futility, not willingly.” Therefore, “Where it wills it blows,” indicates that it is unrestrainable, and that it is poured out everywhere, and there is no one who can hinder it from being carried here and there; but it is scattered with much power, and no one is strong enough to turn aside its course. – John Chrysostom, Commentary on John, Homily 26

And teaching how one must do this, he added: “Seek his face always.” For not once or twice, but throughout all of life it is proper to seek help from above, and to reap the benefit; for those who seek shall be invincible and unconquered. Ask, and it shall be given to you; seek, and you shall find; knock, and it shall be opened to you. For everyone who asks receives, and he who seeks finds, and to him who knocks it shall be opened. But what is seeking? To continually think of him. For he who seeks has that which is sought in his mind. And he stirs up the preachers of the nations to seek the Lord; for from this they are strengthened, being in need of strength to do the things commanded, and having preached to all Greeks and barbarians, according to that which says, “The Lord will give a word to those who proclaim the good news with great power.” But “to seek always” is contrasted with that according to Moses, to appear before him three times a year. And just as in the history Samuel, ministering in the tent of witness, saw the face of God, so those who are advancing in the examination of doctrines always and in the practice of virtues, seek his face always, wishing to see him with a pure mind, who is the express image of his substance, being the image of the invisible God; for which reason also he who sees him, immediately sees the Father. Remember his wonderful works, which he has done; his wonders, and the judgments of his mouth. – Pseudo John Chrysostom, On Psalms 101 & 107, part 20

And God brought the punishments, urging the others to be sober-minded; but they were not willing to receive any benefit from this. And the narrative of the things dared shows this. And they made a calf in Horeb, and worshipped the graven image. He did not mention the mountain simply, but to teach the excess of their impiety. For on it the Lord of all was seen, on it He filled them with terror, appearing with much fire, using trumpets, and resounding with thunders, and with so much fear offering the legislation; and on this they dared the impiety. And the phrase, “They worshipped the graven image,” is an accusation of another madness. For that which they saw had received its form through human art, to this they offered divine reverence. And they changed His glory into the likeness of a calf that eats grass. He very fittingly dramatized their folly. Instead of Him who worked so many wonders, and granted that extraordinary salvation, and is able to do so many things, they have honored an image of a calf, whose archetype is in need of food. And the food of the calf is not the bread that is offered to rational beings, but herbage and grass. But of the calf, whose nature is irrational, and whose food is grass, and whose servitude is given to humans, the image is much more worthless; for it is not only irrational, but also lifeless, not able to act, to low, to eat; but nevertheless they have preferred one so inert to the God of all. – John Chrysostom, On Psalms 101 & 107, part 29

And you would not err in calling idolatry and actions in godlessness the shadow of death; for these are what separate us from the true life. In these we were formerly, because we provoked God and exasperated the counsel of the Most High. For it being necessary from the greatness and beauty of created things to behold the maker of all, and to perceive His eternal power and divinity from the creation of the world, we, like blind men living in darkness and the shadow of death, and with the rational powers of the soul bound and crippled, exchanged the glory of the incorruptible God for the likeness of an image of corruptible man and of birds and four-footed animals and reptiles. Because they provoked the oracles of God, and exasperated the counsel of the Most High. And their heart was humbled in labors; they grew weak, and there was no one to help. And of all these painful things the cause for both Jews and all people is sin. – John Chrysostom, On Psalms 101 & 107, part 35

• Question for you Cathodox: Do you offer divine reverence to the corruptible image of man? Chrysostom says we can only recognize God through His own creation, not through painted images of man. Do you agree with that?

But nevertheless, foreseeing all these things, He washed them, laying down laws for us, that even if we are higher than all, and more brilliant and more eminent than all, and those who are about to lodge with us are worse than all, we should not for this reason flee from their service, nor be ashamed of their lowliness. But you, O woman, if you see someone helping you in worldly affairs, or assisting in court, or in some other such thing, you both meet him, and receive him with much goodwill, and kiss his hands, and pay money, and do the work of maidservants; but if you see Christ entering, do you hesitate and shrink from His service? If you do not receive the stranger as Christ, do not receive him; but if you receive him as Christ, do not be ashamed to wash the feet of Christ. Do you not see how many of those who are oppressed have fled to the feet of statues? And yet the material is senseless, and the bronze lifeless; but nevertheless, since they are images of kings, they expected to gain some benefit from those feet. But you, seeing not senseless feet, nor lifeless matter, but an image having the king within [a fellow human being], entering toward you, do you not run to her, tell me, and hold her feet, and serve her in every way? And how are these things worthy of pardon? Of how much shame would this not be? Consider with whom you have fellowship, being puffed up, and being lifted up to arrogance, and being ashamed of the service of the stranger. With the devil, clearly; for pride is his disease. – John Chrysostom, On “Let a widow be chosen”, chapter 13

10. Were your statues thrown down? You have it in your power again to set up others yet more splendid. For if you remit the offenses of those who have done you injury, and take no revenge upon them, they will erect a statue to you, not one in the forum of brass, nor of gold, nor inlaid with gems; but one arrayed in that robe which is more precious than any material, that of humanity and tender mercy! Every man will thus set you up in his own soul; and you will have as many statues, as there are men who now inhabit, or shall hereafter inhabit, the whole world! For not only we, but all those who come after us, and their successors, will hear of these things, and will admire and love you, just as if they themselves had experienced this kindness! 11. And to show that I do not speak this in a way of flattery, but that it will certainly be so, I will relate to you an ancient piece of history, that you may understand that no armies, nor warlike weapons, nor money, nor multitude of subjects, nor any other such things are wont to make sovereigns so illustrious, as wisdom of soul and gentleness. It is related of the blessed Constantine, that on one occasion, when a statue of himself had been pelted with stones, and many were instigating him to proceed against the perpetrators of the outrage; saying, that they had disfigured his whole face by battering it with stones, he stroked his face with his hand, and smiling gently, said, “I am quite unable to perceive any wound inflicted upon my face. The head appears sound, and the face also quite sound.” Thus these persons, overwhelmed with shame, desisted from their unrighteous counsel. – John Chrysostom, On The Statues, Homily 21, chapters 10-11

Hilary of Poitiers (310-367):

“Against the idolaters. He then turns to dispel the error of the Gentiles by the prophetic word, so that he may convict their stupid and irreligious superstitions from the very causes of those superstitions, saying: “The idols of the Gentiles are silver and gold, the works of the hands of men. They have a mouth, and they will not speak; they have eyes, and they will not see; they have ears, and they will not hear; they have nostrils, and they will not smell; they have hands, and they will not feel; they have feet, and they will not walk; they will not cry out in their throat; neither is there any breath in their mouth. Let those who make them become like them, and all who trust in them” (Psalm 134:15-18). Frequently in other psalms this same thing has been said concerning the idols of the Gentiles; indeed, the whole of prophecy labors for this purpose: to turn human error away from these most foolish pursuits of irreligion. For many add authority to these impieties of theirs, seeking honor for the gods they have made for themselves through the value of metals, forming them from gold and silver. But they bestow only what they are able: namely, the likeness of a mouth, of eyes, ears, nostrils, hands, and feet, worshipping (adorantes) their own gods in the form of a dead body. When the spirit has fled from such a body, the mouth is mute, the eyes are dim, the ears are deaf, the nostrils are lifeless, the hands are limp, the feet are rigid, and the entire body is motionless. Yet to their error is assigned that which they do not even dare to hope for: that they should become like those whom they worship (adorant), and that those who are venerating (venerantes) should be in the company of those who are venerated (veneratorum), destined themselves to be left behind as dead bodies without the breath of life, after the manner of their idols.” – Hilary of Poitiers, Treatise on the Psalms, Psalm 134, chapter 26, PL 9:766

Many of them introduced numerous families of uncertain deities and, imagining that the male and female sex was present in the divine natures, spoke about the birth and the successions of gods from gods. Others proclaimed that there were greater and lesser gods and gods differing in power. Some asserted that there was no God at all and venerated only that nature which came into existence through accidental movements or collisions. A great many declared in accordance with the popular belief that there was a God, but asserted that this same God had no concern or interest in human affairs. Some, however, worshiped those corporeal and visible forms of created things themselves in the elements of earth and heaven. Lastly, certain individuals placed their gods in the images of man, animals, beasts, and serpents, and confined the God of the universe and the Author of infinity within the narrow limits of metals, stones, and genealogies. And it was no longer fitting that they who cling to such ridiculous, degrading, and irreligious theories should be the teachers of the truth, when these men themselves were not in agreement about the principles of their most idiotic beliefs…. In God, however, nothing was to be worshiped except what was eternal and omnipotent. – Hilary of Poitiers, On the Trinity, Book 1, chapter 4

Desist, desist, O groundless fear of the heretics, and do not lie as if you wished to protect the faith of the Church by falsely pretending that you are over-solicitous about this statement! According to our explanation there is nothing corporeal, nothing lifeless in the things of God. What is God is wholly God. In Him there is nothing but power, life, light, blessedness, and spirit. His nature is incompatible with the dull elements of matter, nor is it composed of different things that it may survive. God, as He is God, always remains what He is, and the God who remains as He is has begotten God. – Hilary of Poitiers, On the Trinity, Book 6, chapter 12

It was not the carnal body, which He had received by birth from the Virgin, that could manifest to them the image and likeness of God. The human aspect which He wore could be no aid towards the mental vision of the incorporeal God. But God was recognised in Christ, by such as recognised Christ as the Son on the evidence of the powers of His Divine nature; and a recognition of God the Son produces a recognition of God the Father. For the Son is in such a sense the Image, as to be One in kind with the Father, and yet to indicate that the Father is His Origin. Other images, made of metals or colours or other materials by various arts, reproduce the appearance of the objects which they represent. Yet can lifeless copies be put on a level with their living originals? Painted or carved or molten effigies with the nature which they imitate? The Son is not the Image of the Father after such a fashion as this; He is the living Image of the Living. The Son that is born of the Father has a nature in no wise different from His; and, because His nature is not different, He possesses the power of that nature which is the same as His own. The fact that He is the Image proves that God the Father is the Author of the birth of the Only-begotten, Who is Himself revealed as the Likeness and Image of the invisible God. And hence the likeness, which is joined in union with the Divine nature, is indelibly His, because the powers of that nature are inalienably His own. – Hilary of Poitiers, On the Trinity, book 7, chapter 37

The elements of the world are either lifeless, or else they have been given life, but Christ is the life who has been born from the living God into the living God. The elements of the world have been established by God, but they are not God. – Hilary of Poitiers, On the Trinity, Book 8, chapter 53

• Hilary is saying this in response to heretics who say Jesus is a created being. He’s saying we Christians never worship anything created, or else we’d be like idolaters. He says we’re not like idolaters who worship images of God, but worship in spirit in truth. He says even Jesus’ physical, living body was no aid in helping us to worship God. It was an obstacle. This is all similar to Gregory of Nyssa.

The Apostle could not teach the nature of the Godhead in the Son more explicitly than by the invisibility of God, so that Christ is the image of the invisible God, and certainly He whose substance is visible would not reproduce the image of an invisible nature. – Hilary of Poitiers, On the Trinity, book 11, chapter 5

There is no danger of the one faith not being the one faith because it teaches many things. The Evangelist had reported that the Lord has said: ‘He who has seen me has seen also the Father.’ But, has Paul, the teacher of the Gentiles, been unaware of or silent about the meaning of these words, when he said: ‘Who is the image of the invisible God?’ I ask whether there is a visible image of the invisible God, and whether the infinite God can be brought together in an image so that He is visible through the image of a limited form? An image must express the form of Him whose image it is. Let those who wish the Son to have a different kind of nature decide upon what kind of an image they wish the Son to be of the invisible Father. Do they desire it to be bodily and visible, one that wanders from place to place by its movement and walking? Let them bear in mind that Christ is a Spirit and God is a Spirit, according to the Gospels and the Prophets. And if they will circumscribe this Spirit, Christ, within the bounds of that which may be formed and is corporeal, then the Incarnate One will not be the image of the invisible God and a finite limitation will not be the form of Him who is infinite. – Hilary of Poitiers, On the Trinity, Book 8, chapter 48

Neither has the Lord left anything uncertain: ‘He who has seen me has seen also the Father,’ nor has the Apostle been silent about the nature of Him ‘who is the image of the invisible God.’ The Lord has declared: ‘If I do not perform the works of my Father do not believe me.’ Hence, He teaches that the Father is seen in Him because He performs His works so that the power of the nature that was perceived would reveal the nature of the power that was perceived, wherefore the Apostle, indicating that this is the image of God, says: ‘Who is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of every creature. For in him were created all things in the heavens and on the earth, things visible and things invisible, whether Thrones, or Dominations, or Principalities, or Powers. All things have been created through and unto him, and he is before all creatures, and in him all things hold together. Again, he is the head of his body, the Church; he, who is the beginning, the firstborn from the dead, that in all things he may have the first place. For it has pleased God the Father that in him all his fullness should dwell, and that through him he should reconcile to himself all things.’ Accordingly, He is the image of God by the power of these works. Certainly, the creator of invisible things is not compelled by any necessity of nature to be the visible image of the invisible God. And in order that we might not regard Him as the image of the form rather than of the nature, He is therefore the image of the invisible God, because by the power of His nature we are to understand that in Him there is not an invisible attribute but the nature of God. – Hilary of Poitiers, On the Trinity, Book 8, chapter 49

And lest it be imagined that the bodily appearance was by itself a reflection of the image of the Father’s appearance, He added: ‘Believe me that I am in the Father and the Father in me. Otherwise believe because of the works themselves,’ in order that, since the power was a thing of the nature and the work itself was the strength of the power, the unity of the Father’s nature might be recognized in Him, for, in so far as anyone recognized Him as God in the strength of the nature, in so far they would recognize God the Father in the power of the nature, and, because He is just as great as the Father, the Son would enable us to see the Father in Himself by means of His deeds, and the Father would thereby be known as identical with the Son by the realization that there is an indistinguishable nature in the exercise of the power. – Hilary of Poitiers, On the Trinity, Book 8, chapter 52

But, as it is, neither did the Lord leave us in doubt: He who hath seen Me, hath seen the Father also; nor was the Apostle silent as to His nature, Who is the image of the invisible God. For the Lord had said, If I do not the works of My Father, believe Me not, teaching them to see the Father in Himself in that He did the works of the Father; that through perceiving the power of His nature they might understand the nature of that power which they perceived. Wherefore the Apostle proclaiming that this is the image of God, says, Who is the image of the invisible God, the first-born of all creation; for in Him were all things made in the heavens and upon the earth, things visible and things invisible, whether thrones or dominions or principalities or powers; all things have been created through Him and in Him, and He is before all, and for Him all things consist. And He is the head of the body, the Church, Who is the beginning, the first-born from the dead, that in all things He might have the preeminence. For it was the good pleasure of the Father that in Him should all the fulness dwell, and through Him all things should be reconciled to Him. So through the power of these works He is the image of God. For assuredly the Creator of things invisible is not compelled by any necessity inherent in His nature to be the visible image of the invisible God. And lest He should be regarded as the likeness of the form and not of the nature, He is styled the likeness of the invisible God in order that we may understand by His exercise of the powers (not the invisible attributes) of the Divine nature, that that nature is in Him. – Hilary of Poitiers, On the Trinity, Book 8, chapter 48

Hereby is excluded the assertion of those who wish to represent the relationship of Father and Son as a matter of names, inasmuch as every image is similar in species to that of which it is an image. For no one is himself his own image, but it is necessary that the image should demonstrate him of whom it is an image. So an image is the figured and indistinguishable likeness of one thing equated with another. Therefore the Father is, and the Son is, because the Son is the image of the Father: and he who is an image, if he is to be truly an image, must have in himself his original’s species, nature and essence in virtue of the fact that he is an image. – Hilary of Poitiers, On The Councils, chapter 13

It is here insisted that the nature is indistinguishable and entirely similar. For since He is the Only-begotten Son of God and the image of the invisible God, it is necessary that He should be of an essence similar in species and nature. Or what distinction can be made between Father and Son affecting their nature with its similar genus, when the Son subsisting through the nature begotten in Him is invested with the properties of the Father, viz., glory, worth, power, invisibility, essence? And while these prerogatives of divinity are equal we neither understand the one to be less because He is Son, nor the other to be greater because He is Father; since the Son is the image of the Father in species, and not dissimilar in genus; since the similarity of a Son begotten of the substance of His Father does not admit of any diversity of substance, and the Son and image of the invisible God embraces in Himself the whole form of His Father’s divinity both in kind and in amount: and this is to be truly Son, to reflect the truth of the Father’s form by the perfect likeness of the nature imaged in Himself. – Hilary of Poitiers, On The Councils, chapter 15

Surely it is not unorthodox for us to say that man is like God according to the Scriptures, because it is said: Let us make man in our image and likeness? Therefore man is made to the image and likeness of God the Father and God the Son. If asked, the orthodox will teach you what kind of image it is. But while man is created in the likeness and image of God, ‘likeness’ between the Father and Son is not being proclaimed. For the fact that the text says ‘our’ is proof of equality, since no distinction is made in this mystery as to whose image and likeness it is…. But nowhere will you find ‘likeness’ concerning the Son. The Apostle says that he is the image of God, but with an additional element of faith, lest you think of ‘image’ in terms of shaping. For he says: Who is the image of God invisible, meaning that the image of God invisible, since he himself is invisible, is the invisible image of God. For Scripture specifically assigned to man ‘likeness to God’ along with ‘image’, lest the proper possession of truth be ascribed to one for whom ‘likeness’ had been added to ‘image’. Finally, when it equalises in respect of power, and likeness in performing works is attributed to the Son, when an advancement of understanding is truly being taught, then it says this: All things that the Father does, the Son also does the same things likewise. To do ‘likewise’ would appear to be too little, were it not for the fact that ‘like things’ are ‘the same things’. Thus ‘likeness of action’ has been revealed, according to orthodoxy, to consist in the proper meaning of ‘the same actions’. There is also in the Lord the likeness of sinful flesh; but he does not possess merely the likeness of flesh, but the likeness of sinful flesh, in such a way that the one in the form of God is man, while the one in the likeness of sinful flesh is the likeness of man, since he is in the state of being man, but without the sin of man. What clever statement of your belief is it to say ‘the Son is like the Father according to the Scriptures’, when only man was made in the image and likeness of God? Why, then, do you deceive with words? Why do you trick with artifice? – Against Constantius, chapters 20-21

Ephrem the Syrian (306–373):

John, in truth, when he saw You, shadowed out You, who are the Word and God who cannot be searched out, so that every person should shadow You out by that type in their mind, and not dare to shadow out anything that is foreign to You. The appearance that the Spirit in John sealed upon us has also impressed our heart, understanding, and mind. His nature is hidden yet revealed, though it is entirely hidden; for it is revealed that it exists but is concealed in its mode of existence. Let us leave alone what He has left, and hold fast to what He has given us to hold fast.

If it is too difficult for painters to paint the wind in colors, whose tongue has painted the Generation, which no mouths have painted with words? When they paint the body, they do not paint the soul; and when they paint the mouth, they do not paint the voice, since these do not fall under the pencil. The Scriptures, which paint the Son for us, do not paint for us when [He became Son], and though they preach to us the Father, they do not preach how [He begets], since these things cannot be investigated. And if even the devil cannot be shadowed forth with colors, who has, through investigations, shadowed forth the Holy Spirit? The unclean spirit scoffs at their interpretations of Him; for just as he conceals himself from painters, so the Godhead is a hundredfold more concealed from minds that do not comprehend the mode of His existence.

And just as colors cannot paint the voice, so thoughts are not sufficient for the Son, the mark at which they aim from a subtle mind. Which of the painters gazed upon that brightness in which Moses was enwrapped? Neither the painters of faces nor the painters of drapery sufficed to paint him. For those heavenly tints could not even be perfectly taken in by the eye or by the mind, which was not fitted for either of them. – Rhythm the Thirty-Third, chapters 1-3

Yet Your visible bread is far more precious than Your body; for Your body, even unbelievers have seen, but they have not seen Your living bread. Those who were far off rejoiced! Their portion utterly scorns that of those who are near. Lo! Your image is shadowed forth in the blood of the grapes on the bread, and it is shadowed forth on the heart with the finger of love, with the colors of faith. Blessed is He who, by the image of His truth, caused the graven images to pass away. – Rhythm the Eleventh

Oh, gift that came up without price with the diver! You laid hold upon this visible light, which rises freely for the children of men—a parable of the hidden One who freely gives the hidden day-spring! Even the painter creates a likeness of you with colors. Yet through you, faith is painted in symbols and emblems instead of colors, and in place of the image, your Creator is portrayed through you and your colors. Oh, frankincense without smell, who breathes symbols from within you! You are not to be eaten, yet you give a sweet fragrance to those who hear you! You are not to be drunk, yet through your story, you become a fountain of symbols for the ears! – Rhythm the Fifth, chapter 1

Blessed is the glorious hidden One, for even Your smallest mystery is a fountain of mysteries! Who can fully uncover mysteries that never cease? If someone were to create a likeness of You, it would become a fountain from which all other likenesses flow. To what can we look to imprint Your Image upon our hearts? In Your one adorable Image, ten thousand beautiful things are gathered together. – Rhythm 4, chapter 4

The Scriptures are like a mirror: anyone with a clear eye can see the image of truth within them. There, the likeness of the Father is revealed, and the image of the Son is portrayed, along with that of the Holy Spirit. – Rhythm the Sixty-Seventh, chapter 2

Gregory of Nyssa (335-394):

For verily the Right Hand of God was God Himself; manifested in the flesh, seen through that same flesh by those whose sight was clear; as He did the work of the Father, being, both in fact and in thought, the Right Hand of God, yet being changed, in respect of the veil of the flesh by which He was surrounded, as regarded that which was seen, from that which He was by Nature, as a subject of contemplation. Therefore He says to Philip, who was gazing only at that which was changed, “Look through that which is changed to that which is unchangeable, and if you see this, you have seen that Father Himself, Whom you seek to see; for he that has seen Me — not Him Who appears in a state of change, but My very self, Who am in the Father — will have seen that Father Himself in Whom I am, because the very same character of Godhead is beheld in both” (John 14:9-10). If, then, we believe that the immortal and impassible and uncreated Nature came to be in the passible Nature of the creature, and conceive the change to consist in this, on what grounds are we charged with saying that He was emptied to become Himself, by those who keep prating their own statements about our doctrines? For the participation of the created with the created is no change of the Right Hand. To say that the Right Hand of the uncreated Nature is created belongs to Eunomius alone, and to those who adopt such opinions as he holds. For the man with an eye that looks on the truth will discern the Right Hand of the Highest to be such as he sees the Highest to be — Uncreated of Uncreated, Good of Good, Eternal of Eternal without prejudice to Its eternity by Its being in the Father by way of generation. – Gregory of Nyssa, Against Eunomius, book 6, chapter 3

• Gregory says Jesus’ body is NOT His “very self,” but rather the divine nature is His true self. This shouldn’t be difficult to grasp considering we say this even about all other human beings. No Christian would say that their BODY is “who they are.” Your body is your instrument, your vehicle, your vessel, but your soul is the seat of consciousness and being. When the soul is separated from the body, you are still yourself, but you’ve lost your body. The body without the soul is dead, but the soul without the body is alive. If your soul is your true self, how much more is Christ’s divine nature His true self, in contrast to His body!

When, therefore, Moses grew in knowledge, he declared that he had seen God in the darkness, that is, that he had then come to know that what is divine is beyond all knowledge and comprehension, for the text says, Moses approached the dark cloud where God was. What God? He who made darkness his hiding place, as David says, who also was initiated into the mysteries in the same inner sanctuary. 165. When Moses arrived there, he was taught by word what he had formerly learned from darkness, so that, I think, the doctrine on this matter might be made firmer for us for being testified to by the divine voice. The divine word at the beginning forbids that the Divine be likened to any of the things known by men, since every concept which comes from some comprehensible image by an approximate understanding and by guessing at the divine nature constitutes an idol of God and does not proclaim God. 166. Religious virtue is divided into two parts, into that which pertains to the Divine and that which pertains to right conduct (for purity of life is a part of religion). Moses learns at first the things which must be known about God (namely, that none of those things known by human comprehension is to be ascribed to him). Then he is taught the other side of virtue, learning by what pursuits the virtuous life is perfected. — Gregory of Nyssa, On the Life of Moses, Book 2.164-166

For we have learned from the mighty utterance of Paul that it is the distinguishing feature of idolatry to worship and serve the creature more than the Creator, as well as from David, when He says There shall no new God be in you: neither shall you worship any alien God. We use this line and rule to arrive at the discernment of the object of worship, so as to be convinced that that alone is God which is neither new nor alien. Since then we have been taught to believe that the Only-begotten God is God, we acknowledge, by our belief that He is God, that He is neither new or alien. If, then, He is God, He is not new, and if He is not new, He is assuredly eternal. Accordingly, neither is the Eternal new, nor is He Who is of the Father and in the bosom of the Father and Who has the Father in Himself alien from true Deity. Thus he who severs the Son from the nature of the Father either absolutely disallows the worship of the Son, that he may not worship an alien God, or bows down before an idol, making a creature and not God the object of his worship, and giving to his idol the name of Christ. – Gregory of Nyssa, Against Eunomius, Book 2, chapter 7

• An idol is not merely an image of a pagan god. Gregory of Nyssa argues that worshiping a created version of Christ is idolatry, since divine worship belongs to God alone, not to creatures. If worshiping a living Christ who was merely a creature would be idolatrous (as it elevates a creature to the place of the Creator), then how much more idolatrous is it to bow down to a lifeless image of Him! The same principle applies: no creature—whether living or depicted—may rightly receive latreia.

For when the prophet, speaking in the person of God, had said, “My glory will I not give to another”, he added, “neither My praise to graven images.” For when men were beguiled to offer to the adversary of God the worship and adoration due to God alone, paying homage in the representations of graven images to the enemy of God, who appeared in many shapes among men in the forms furnished by idols, He Who heals them that are sick, in pity for men’s ruin, foretold by the prophet the loving-kindness which in the latter days He would show in the abolishing of idols, saying, When My truth shall have been manifested, “My glory shall no more be given to another, nor My praise bestowed upon graven images:” for men, when they come to know My glory, shall no more be in bondage to them that by nature are no gods. – Gregory of Nyssa, Against Eunomius, Book 2, Chapter 10

What he adds to the preceding statements is characterized by the same want of meaning, or rather by the same malignity of meaning. For in calling Him Son Whom, a little before, he had plainly declared to be created, and in calling Him only begotten God Whom he reckoned with the rest of things that have come into being by creation, he affirms that He is like Him that begot Him only by a special likeness, in a peculiar sense. Accordingly, we must first distinguish the significations of the term “like,” in how many senses it is employed in ordinary use, and afterwards proceed to discuss Eunomius’ positions. In the first place, then, all things that beguile our senses, not being really identical in nature, but producing illusion by some of the accidents of the respective subjects, as form, color, sound, and the impressions conveyed by taste or smell or touch, while really different in nature, but supposed to be other than they truly are, these custom declares to have the relation of likeness, as, for example, when the lifeless material is shaped by art, whether carving, painting, or modelling, into an imitation of a living creature, the imitation is said to be like the original. For in such a case the nature of the animal is one thing, and that of the material, which cheats the sight by mere color and form, is another. To the same class of likeness belongs the image of the original figure in a mirror, which gives appearances of motion, without, however, being in nature identical with its original. In just the same way our hearing may experience the same deception, when, for instance, some one, imitating the song of the nightingale with his own voice, persuades our hearing so that we seem to be listening to the bird. Taste, again, is subject to the same illusion, when the juice of figs mimics the pleasant taste of honey: for there is a certain resemblance to the sweetness of honey in the juice of the fruit. So, too, the sense of smell may sometimes be imposed upon by resemblance, when the scent of the herb camomile, imitating the fragrant apple itself, deceives our perception: and in the same way with touch also, likeness belies the truth in various modes, since a silver or brass coin, of equal size and similar weight with a gold one, may pass for the gold piece if our sight does not discern the truth. We have thus generally described in a few words the several cases in which objects, because they are deemed to be different from what they really are, produce delusions in our senses. – Gregory of Nyssa, Against Eunomius, Book 2, Chapter 12

For that which is “made in the image” of the Deity necessarily possesses a likeness to its prototype in every respect; it resembles it in being intellectual, immaterial, unconnected with any notion of weight, and in eluding any measurement of its dimensions; yet as regards its own peculiar nature it is something different from that other. Indeed, it would be no longer an “image,” if it were altogether identical with that other; but where we have A in that uncreated prototype we have a in the image. – Gregory of Nyssa, On the Soul and the Resurrection

Thus do the reflections of those ineffable qualities of Deity shine forth within the narrow limits of our nature; and so our reason, following the leading of these reflections, will not miss grasping the Mind in its essence by clearing away from the question all corporeal qualities; nor on the other hand will it bring the pure and infinite Existence to the level of that which is perishable and little; it will regard this essence of the Mind as an object of thought only, since it is the “image” of an Existence which is such; but it will not pronounce this image to be identical with the prototype. Just, then, as we have no doubts, owing to the display of a Divine mysterious wisdom in the universe, about a Divine Being and a Divine Power existing in it all which secures its continuance (though if you required a definition of that Being you would therein find the Deity completely sundered from every object in creation, whether of sense or thought, while in these last, too, natural distinctions are admitted), so, too, there is nothing strange in the soul’s separate existence as a substance (whatever we may think that substance to be) being no hindrance to her actual existence, in spite of the elemental atoms of the world not harmonizing with her in the definition of her being. In the case of our living bodies, composed as they are from the blending of these atoms, there is no sort of communion, as has been just said, on the score of substance, between the simplicity and invisibility of the soul, and the grossness of those bodies; but, notwithstanding that, there is not a doubt that there is in them the soul’s vivifying influence exerted by a law which it is beyond the human understanding to comprehend – Gregory of Nyssa, On the Soul and the Resurrection

The Parable therefore suggests that a candle should first be lit, signifying doubtless our reason which throws light on hidden principles; then that in one’s own house, that is, within oneself, we should search for that lost coin; and by that coin the Parable doubtless hints at the image of our King, not yet hopelessly lost, but hidden beneath the dirt; and by this last we must understand the impurities of the flesh, which, being swept and purged away by carefulness of life, leave clear to the view the object of our search. Then it is meant that the soul herself who finds this rejoices over it, and with her the neighbours, whom she calls in to share with her in this delight. Verily, all those powers which are the housemates of the soul, and which the Parable names her neighbours for this occasion, when so be that the image of the mighty King is revealed in all its brightness at last (that image which the Fashioner of each individual heart of us has stamped upon this our Drachma), will then be converted to that divine delight and festivity, and will gaze upon the ineffable beauty of the recovered one. Rejoice with me, she says, because I have found the Drachma which I had lost. The neighbours, that is, the soul’s familiar powers, both the reasoning and the appetitive, the affections of grief and of anger, and all the rest that are discerned in her, at that joyful feast which celebrates the finding of the heavenly Drachma are well called her friends also; and it is meet that they should all rejoice in the Lord when they all look towards the Beautiful and the Good, and do everything for the glory of God, no longer instruments of sin. Romans 6:13 If, then, such is the lesson of this finding of the lost, viz. that we should restore the divine image from the foulness which the flesh wraps round it to its primitive state, let us become that which the First Man was at the moment when he first breathed. And what was that? Destitute he was then of his covering of dead skins, but he could gaze without shrinking upon God’s countenance. He did not yet judge of what was lovely by taste or sight; he found in the Lord alone all that was sweet; and he used the helpmeet given him only for this delight, as Scripture signifies when it said that he knew her not Genesis 4:1 till he was driven forth from the garden, and till she, for the sin which she was decoyed into committing, was sentenced to the pangs of childbirth. – On Virginity, chapter 12

This logical and thinking animal, man, came into being as the work and imitation of the divine and unmixed nature. For thus it is written of him in the story of creation, that: “He made him in the image of God.” This creature, man, therefore, did not have the elements of passion and mortality essentially and naturally in himself from the beginning. For it would not have been possible for the meaning of the word “image” to be preserved if the copied beauty were different from the archetype. It was only later with the first fall that sin came upon man, and thus it crept in…. Like man, this “great and honored being,” as he was called by Scripture, falling from his own worthiness like those who slip and fall into the mud and, having smeared themselves with mire, become unrecognizable even to their companions, so the one who falls into the mire of sin no longer is the image of the incorruptible God, and he is covered through sin with a corruptible and slimy form which reason advises him to reject. However, if, purged by the water, so to speak, of his way of life, the earthly covering can be stripped off, the beauty of the soul may reappear again. – Gregory of Nyssa, On Virginity, chapter 12

For where love enters, hatred departs, envy vanishes, anger and wrath subside, the spirit of bitterness and vengeance is dissolved, the boiling of the heart cools, the eye of malice grows clear again, and every herd of such evils disappears before the disposition of love. Thus, the working of God’s will casts out the double idolatry of mankind — I mean both the madness for images and the craving for silver and gold, which the word of prophecy calls “the idols of the nations” (Psalm 96:5). Therefore, “Your will be done” means: let the will of the devil be extinguished. – Gregory of Nyssa, Homily 4 On the Lord’s Prayer

The first man was constituted as an imitation of the likeness of God. So Moses, in philosophizing about man, where he says that God made man, states that: “He created him in the image of God,” and the word “Christianity,” therefore, brings man back to his original good fortune. – Gregory of Nyssa, On What It Means to Call Oneself a Christian, chapter 1

Accordingly, this Person who is beyond knowledge and comprehension, the ineffable and the “unspeakable” and the “inexpressible,” in order that He might again make Himself an “image of God,” because of His love for man, became Himself an “image of the invisible God” so that he took on the form which He assumed among you, and again, through Himself, He fashioned a beauty in accord with the character of the Archetype. Therefore, if we also are to become an ‘image of the invisible God,’ it is fitting that the form of our life be struck according to the “example” of the life set before us. But what is that? It is living in the flesh, but not “according to the flesh.” The Prototype, “the image of the invisible God,” living in His virginity, underwent all temptations because of the similarity of His nature to ours, but He did not share the experience of a single sin: “Who did no sin, neither was deceit found in His mouth.” Therefore, just as when we are learning the art of painting, the teacher puts before us on a panel a beautifully executed model, and it is necessary for each student to imitate in every way the beauty of that model on his own panel, so that the panels of all will be adorned in accordance with the example of the beauty set before them; in the same way, since every person is the painter of his own life, and choice is the craftsman of the work, and the virtues are the paints for executing the image, there is no small danger that the imitation may change the Prototype into a hateful and ugly person instead of reproducing the master form if we sketch in the character of evil with muddy colors. But, since it is possible, one must prepare the pure colors of the virtues, mixing them with each other according to some artistic formula for the imitation of beauty, so that we become an image of the image, having achieved the beauty of the Prototype through activity as a kind of imitation, as did Paul, who became an “imitator of Christ,” through his life of virtue. If it is necessary to distinguish the individual colors through which the imitation comes about, one color is meekness, for he says: “Learn from me, for I am meek and humble of heart.” Another color is patience which appears quantitatively in “the image of the invisible God.” – Gregory of Nyssa, On Perfection, chapter 1

“Let us add that [man’s] creation in the image of the nature that governs all demonstrates precisely that he has from the beginning a royal nature. Following common usage, painters of portraits of princes, as well as representing their features, express their royal dignity by garments of purple, and before this image one is accustomed to say “the king”. Thus human nature, created to rule the world because of his resemblance to the universal King, has been made like a living image that participates in the archetype by dignity and by name. He is not clothed in purple, scepter and diadem, for these do not signify his dignity (the archetype himself does not possess them). But in place of purple, he is clothed with virtue, the most royal of garments. Instead of a scepter, he is endowed with blessed immortality. Instead of a royal diadem, he bears the crown of justice, in such a way that everything about him manifests royal dignity, by his exact likeness to the beauty of the archetype.” – Gregory of Nyssa (On the Creation of Man 4)

The form of God is absolutely the same as the essence. Yet when he came to be in “the form of a slave,” he took form in the essence of the slave, not assuming a naked form for himself. Yet he is not thereby divorced from his essence as God. Undoubtedly when Paul said that he was “in the form of God,” he was indicating the essence along with the form. – Gregory of Nyssa, AGAINST EUNOMIUS 3.2.147

Macarius Magnes (late 300s AD):

[He says this] in order that any of those who think rightly, having heard of the rational essence in heaven, which rejoices in the principle of immortality, might compose his life in imitation of them [i.e. the angels], and be zealous in his deeds for their glory, abstaining from marriage and shirking the symbols of corruption, and finally that, passing through the gates of death, he might come into the hall of the blessed (that is, of the angels) being relieved of his burden. – not, indeed, after having fashioned images in the figure [of angels], as you yourself say, speaking to a shadow and rejoicing in a mere appearance, making himself acquainted with inanimate material things as if they were animate, being entertained by the dead apparitions of letters, presenting his intercession to a mute creation, thinking that the Divine lurks in stone and wood, deluded that the uncontainable order is contained by copper and iron, irrationally surmising that the ungraspable is grasped in a dead image. For even if, for the most part, angels have appeared in the form of men, they did not [in themselves] look like this, but were invisible. But if someone either paints or casts in bronze [an image of the Divine] according to this [human] likeness, he does not make it according to what it truly is, nor would he enclose its nature. And even if he perfects it to the letter, he wears himself out, totally exhausted, wanting to give a tactile form to that which cannot be touched. – Macarius Magnes, Apocriticus, book 4, chapter 27, verses 2-3

Hence, with good reason, in every mystical discourse, for the sake of the [divine] economy, the Divine acts according to the natures of those he aids, degraded not even if he be revealed as a plant, since it is not possible for created beings to see the ingenerate plainly, nor for corporeal beings to approach the incorporeal, nor for compounded beings to grasp what is uncompounded; for someone who in his sleep sees a lion or column or a river does not see a true river or column or lion, but by a trick of the eye sees a dream which is insubstantial when judged by the scrutiny of knowledge. Thus, someone hearing of God’s feet, hands, fingers, tongue, or ear, having been instructed about them and understanding something appropriate to the Divine, would not judge them to be corporeal feet or hands, but an image of things that reside in the imagination. Thus angels appeared to Abraham, disclosing a human form to his vision, but were not human by nature, preserving the principle of incorporeal beings. And the actions they performed were human and not a false imitation of human nature. They who did them were in truth angels, and they did not temper their own nature by this act, but adapted their appearance for a vision proper to Abraham. While taking food and drink they did not consume them like Abraham, but consumed what they were offered like fire. They did not become full from it like those who are hungry, nor did they excrete the remainder, as is customary, as dung.

They did each thing in a manner fit for each thing; for appearing to humans they maintained the particular way of humans, so that they would not cause a great offence against the just man [i.e. Abraham] by refusing to eat, and thus show that their own nature was inhospitable to him. But again, so that they not seem to be completely changed into human nature, they preserved precisely the limits of status, although they took grain like men from Abraham. Eating it, they consumed it as angels, experiencing no sweet taste in their mouths by corporeal sense of taste, but consuming the food by incorporeal contact. And since these things manifestly occurred in truth, Abraham does not make the epiphany of those he saw into a figure, nor does he carve a statue resembling [them] or paint on a board, thinking that he could see in these those he had entertained, but in the hidden treasury of the soul he kept the memory of them and had all his cares calmed. – Macarius Magnes, Apocriticus, book 4, chapter 27, verses 6-10

… Hence we should be afraid to accept such an opinion about God. We should bristle at the thought of being overly curious about the mind of the Maker, and we confess that he assumed flesh, but do not believe that he resides in inanimate and mute statues. Nor should we call the elements of the cosmos “gods”—earth, water, fire, and air. And even though the stars “run” and have an unending course, we do not deify them. For as no one has crowned the horses that race, but rather their driver and charioteer, so too not to the stars but to God, who kindled them, do we reserve honour. And even if a statue were to speak and seem to communicate, neither to these do we grant honour or glory. Nor if Moses says “Do not speak ill of the gods” do we think he speaks about these [gods] or mentions them, for [he refers] to the gods “to whom the Word of God came,” as if they are the warm things which the fire warmed. But the Word of God never spoke through stones or pieces of wood, nor furnished sensation to insensible things. Humans, in their empty thinking, melting gold and working silver, have requested oracles from them, as if from gods; crippled in mind and blind in their thinking, they are not dissuaded by the insensibility of stone statues from thinking they have a soul. They do not judge and rightly weigh the fact that that which is inanimate has no sensation of honour nor again of outrage, it does not repay the one who praises it with honour or the One who abuses it with retributions.

Now Moses does not say not to disrespect inanimate gods. For how can what is insensible be disrespected? By what could it ever be grieved? But who is so dumb, idle, and stupid as to disrespect that which is unable, because of the torpor of matter, to perceive the outrage of disrespect? Since they are neither gods nor beings having sensation, they will not be reproached, or repay anything, as they are dead in nature and by definition without motion. But if they have the names and titles of gods, they do not sully the Divine, any more than dogs do when honoured by human names. Many, out of recklessness, have given divine names to the profane. Wronging the Divine in no way by this, they have only revealed their folly. For if someone is called a god and is in no way divine he will outrage the title and impugn the name, being subject to a merciless and irremediable accusation. – Macarius Magnes, Apocriticus, book 4, chapter 29

Cyril of Jerusalem (313–386 AD):

5. In fact, all the living things were created to serve us. Plants and trees were created for our enjoyment. All created things were good, but none of them was the image of God save man alone. The sun was fashioned by a mere command, but man by God’s hands. “Let us make man in our image and likeness.” A wooden image of an earthly king is honored (τιμᾶται); how much more a rational image of God. But the envy of the devil cast out this greatest of God’s works, when it was making merry in Paradise. The enemy exulted over the fall of him whom he had envied; would you have wished the devil to continue to rejoice? He did not dare approach the man because of his strength, but approached the woman, as being weaker, when she was still a virgin; for it was after his expulsion from Paradise that “Adam knew Eve his wife.”

13. But let us believe in Jesus Christ, as having come in the flesh and been made Man, because we could not receive Him otherwise. For since we could not look upon or enjoy Him as He was, He became what we are, that so we might be permitted to enjoy Him. For if we cannot look full on the sun, which was made on the fourth day, could we behold God its Creator? The Lord came down in fire on Mount Sinai, and the people could not bear it, but said to Moses,  Speak thou with us, and we will hear; and let not God speak to us, lest we die: and again, For who is there of all flesh that hath heard the voice of the living God speaking out of the midst of the fire, and shall live? If to hear the voice of God speaking is a cause of death, how shall not the sight of God Himself bring death? And what wonder? Even Moses himself saith, I exceedingly fear and quake.

14. What wouldest thou then? That He who came for our salvation should become a minister of destruction because men could not bear Him? Or that He should suit His grace to our measure? Daniel could not bear the vision of an Angel, and wert thou capable of the sight of the Lord of Angels? Gabriel appeared, and Daniel fell down: and of what nature or in what guise was he that appeared? His countenance was like lightning; not like the sun:  and his eyes as lamps of fire, not as a furnace of fire:  and the voice of his words as the voice of a multitude, not as the voice of twelve legions of angels; nevertheless the Prophet fell down. And the Angel cometh unto him, saying, Fear not, Daniel, stand upright: be of good courage, thy words are heard. And Daniel says, I stood up trembling: and not even so did he make answer, until the likeness of a man’s hand touched him. And when he that appeared was changed into the appearance of a man, then Daniel spoke: and what saith he?  O my Lord, at the vision of Thee my inward parts were turned within me, and no strength remaineth in me, neither is there breath left in me. If an Angel appearing took away the Prophet’s voice and strength, would the appearance of God have allowed him to breathe? And until  there touched me as it were a vision of a man, saith the Scripture, Daniel took not courage. So then after trial shewn of our weakness, the Lord assumed that which man required: for since man required to hear from one of like countenance, the Saviour took on Him the nature of like affections, that men might be the more easily instructed.

• The Cathodox would have us believe that Christ became visible just so that we could worship his body in pictorial form, but the fathers always emphasize that Jesus became a man so that He could instruct mankind through teaching! If believing in Christ required that you see a pictorial representation of Him, what does Ignatius mean, that “He is more visible now that no one can see His body?”

15. Learn also another cause. Christ came that He might be baptized, and might sanctify Baptism: He came that He might work wonders, walking upon the waters of the sea. Since then before His appearance in flesh,  the sea saw Him and fled, and Jordan was turned back, the Lord took to Himself His body, that the sea might endure the sight, and Jordan receive Him without fear. This then is one cause; but there is also a second. Through Eve yet virgin came death; through a virgin, or rather from a virgin, must the Life appear: that as the serpent beguiled the one, so to the other Gabriel might bring good tidings. Men forsook God, and made carved idols (ξόανα) of men. Since therefore a human-shaped thing (ἀνθρωπομόρφου) was falsely (ψευδῶς) worshipped (προσκυνουμένου) as God, God became truly Man (ἄνθρωπος), that the falsehood might be done away. The Devil had used the flesh (σαρκὶ) as an instrument against us; and Paul knowing this, saith, But I see another law in my members warring against the law of my mind, and bringing me into captivity, and the rest. By the very same weapons, therefore, wherewith the Devil used to vanquish us, have we been saved. The Lord took on Him from us our likeness, that He might save man’s nature: He took our likeness, that He might give greater grace to that which lacked; that sinful humanity might become partaker of God.  For where sin abounded, grace did much more abound. It behoved the Lord to suffer for us; but if the Devil had known Him, he would not have dared to approach Him. For had they known it, they would not have crucified the Lord of Glory. His body therefore was made a bait to death that the dragon, hoping to devour it, might disgorge those also who had been already devoured. For Death prevailed and devoured; and again, God wiped away every tear from off every face. – Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical Lecture 12

• A Cathodox might read this and think it proves we can worship images, as the inaccurate New Advent translation says, “Since therefore an image of man was falsely worshipped as God, God became truly Man, that the falsehood might be done away,” as if we should interpret him to say, “God made it possible for you to worship images in a legitimate way!” But Cyril never uses the word “image.” He uses the word “anthropomorphic,” meaning “human-shaped thing.” He said Satan was destroying humanity through the flesh, so God became flesh to destroy Satan. He doesn’t say that Jesus became a lifeless image of a man in order to justify those people who worship lifeless images, but rather, he emphasizes that Jesus became TRULY MAN, that the FALSEHOOD of worshiping a MAN as God might be done away. Then he says Jesus took on man’s very nature so that we could take on God’s nature. He didn’t become a lifeless image so that we could become lifeless images! He came to save “sinful humanity,” not lifeless images of men, since images of men cannot sin.

16. Was it without reason that Christ was made Man? Are our teachings ingenious phrases and human subtleties? Are not the Holy Scriptures our salvation? Are not the predictions of the Prophets? Keep then, I pray thee, this deposit undisturbed, and let none remove thee: believe that God became Man. But though it has been proved possible for Him to be made Man, yet if the Jews still disbelieve, let us hold this forth to them: What strange thing do we announce in saying that God was made Man, when yourselves say that Abraham received the Lord as a guest? What strange thing do we announce, when Jacob says,  For I have seen God face to face, and my life is preserved? The Lord, who ate with Abraham, ate also with us. What strange thing then do we announce? Nay more, we produce two witnesses, those who stood before Lord on Mount Sinai: Moses was in a  clift of the rock, and Elias was once in a clift of the rock: they being present with Him at His Transfiguration on Mount Tabor,  spoke to the Disciples of His decease which fire should accomplish at Jerusalem. But, as I said before, it has been proved possible for Him to be made man: and the rest of the proofs may be left for the studious to collect. – Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical Lecture 12

(4) What was it that each of you said, standing there? “I renounce you, Satan, you wicked and cruel tyrant; I no longer” (you said in effect) “fear your power. For Christ broke that power by sharing flesh and blood with me, planning through their assumption to break, by His death, the power of Death, to save me from subjection to perpetual bondage. I renounce you, crafty scoundrel of a serpent; I renounce you, traitor, perpetrator of every crime, who inspired our first parents to revolt. I renounce you, Satan, agent and abettor of all wickedness.”

(5) Then in a second phrase you are taught to say, “and all your works.” All sin is “the works of Satan”; and sin, too, you must renounce, since he who has escaped from a tyrant has also cast off the tyrant’s livery. Sin in all its forms, then, is included in the works of the Devil. Only let me tell you this: all your words, particularly those spoken at that awful hour, are recorded in the book of God. Whenever, therefore, you are caught in conduct contrary to your profession, you will be tried as a renegade. Renounce, then, the works of Satan, that is, every irrational deed and thought.

(6) Next you say, “and all his pomp.” The pomp of the Devil is the craze for the theatre, the horse races in the circus, the wild-beast hunts, and all such vanity, from which the saint prays to God to be delivered in the words, “Turn away mine eyes that they may not behold vanity.” Avoid an addiction to the theatre, with its spectacle of the licentiousness, the lewd and unseemly antics of actors and the frantic dancing of degenerates. Not for you, either, the folly of those who, to gratify their miserable appetite, expose themselves to wild beasts in the combats in the amphitheatre. They pamper their belly at the cost of becoming themselves, in the event, food for the maw of savage beasts; of these gladiators it is fair to say that in the service of the belly which is their God they court death in the arena. Shun also the bedlam of the races, a spectacle in which souls as well as riders come to grief. All these follies are the pomp of the Devil.

(7) The food, also, which is sometimes hung up in pagan temples and at festivals-meat, bread, and so forth-since it is defiled by the invocation of abominable demons, may be included in “the pomp of the Devil.” For as the bread and wine of the Eucharist before the holy invocation of the adorable Trinity were ordinary bread and wine, while after the invocation the bread becomes the Body of Christ, and the wine his Blood, so these foods of the pomp of Satan, though of their own nature ordinary food, become profane through the invocation of evil spirits.

(8) After this you say, “and all your service.” The service of the Devil is prayer in the temples of idols, the honoring of lifeless idols, the lighting of lamps or the burning of incense by springs or streams; there have been cases of persons who, deceived by dreams or by evil spirits, have gone to this length in the hope of being rewarded by the cure of even bodily ailments. Have nothing to do with these practices. The observation of birds, divination, omens, charms and amulets, magic and similar chicanery-all such practices are the cult of the Devil. Shun them. For if you should succumb to such practices after renouncing Satan and transferring your allegiance to Christ, you will find the usurper more cruel than ever. For if formerly, treating you as a familiar, he abated the rigors of your slavery, now he will be furiously exasperated against you. So you will lose Christ and taste Satan’s tyranny.

Have you not heard the old story which recounts the fate of Lot and his daughters? Was not Lot himself saved together with his daughters after gaining the mountain, while his wife was turned into a pillar of salt, a monumental warning and a memorial of her wicked choice (her looking back)? So be on your guard: do not turn back to “what is behind,” first “putting your hand to the plow” and then “turning back” to the bitter savor of the things of this world. No; flee to the mountain, to Jesus Christ, the “stone hewn without hands”18 that has filled the world. – Cyril of Jerusalem, Mystagogical Lecture 1, chapters 4-8

Didymus the Blind (313– 398 AD):

The wretches were guilty not only of this: in following all the rites of the Baal and every form of idolatry they also turned their back on the one who observes them with unsleeping eye. The result was that they reverenced and adored wicked demons that were ranged alongside the lifeless images, and that took satisfaction in smells and smoke, cakes and libations consumed on altars lawlessly constructed with grave impiety. – Didymus the Blind, Commentary on Zechariah, homily 7

“On that day,” says the Lord, “I shall eliminate the names of the idols from the land, and there will be no further remembrance of them; I shall remove the false prophets and the unclean spirit from the land (v.2).” When the aforementioned transformation takes place with a view to the aspersion and the truth, then the fictions of the heretics (referred to figuratively as idols) will be eliminated from the land; people will no longer be deceived, idolatry in a figurative sense will be shown up by the manifestation of truth, and all the false prophecy will be removed as well as the unclean spirit responsible for it that was found in the human being before faith in Christ. It is also possible that there is reference in elimination from the earth to material statues and the demons associated with them. Proof that the images are suggested by this term can be gained from the psalmist’s statement, “The idols of the nations are silver and gold; they have feet but do not walk,” and so on. And the fact that the one term is used for the actual shrines and the demons lurking within them the prophet Isaiah confirms in a passage beginning thus: “Bewail, carvings in Jerusalem and in Samaria: what I did to Samaria and its idols I shall also do to Jerusalem and her idols.” Carven and molded idols that bewail are not the work of artisans, which does not naturally bewail. Bewailing is an action belonging to living things; it is an involuntary cry uttered by a living being affected by natural distress. This thought is developed in many places in the work on Isaiah with support from the Wisdom of Solomon, which has this to say: “The impious and their impiety are equally hateful to God; the action will be punished along with the guilty one.” This statement of the sage refers to the artisan and the wood sculpted by him in the likeness of a living being; just as what has no soul cannot bewail, as has been pointed out just above, so it is also incapable of being punished. Hence the verse should be taken to refer to the demons attached to the lifeless images. With the elimination of the idols from the earth, there will be removed from it the false seers and in short those promoting false foreknowledge, rightly referred to by the divine instruction as false prophets. – Didymus the Blind, Commentary on Zechariah, homily 13

Many of those deported from their own country and homeland into that of their conquerors by the norm of captivity completely abandoned the worship of God and served idols…. and adoring Baal and the dragon as well as the dumb image of the tyrant Nebuchadnezzar. – Didymus the Blind, Commentary on Zechariah, homily 13

So when Jerusalem will abide with confidence, there will be no one in it under curse, nor any idol, since carved and graven images will have been abolished from it. When these are done away with, in fact, it will abide confidently because it will be enjoying spiritual security, of which Jeremiah the prophet said in these words: “Blessed is the person who has confidence in the Lord.” – Didymus the Blind, Commentary on Zechariah, homily 14

“Let us make a human being in our image and likeness.” God’s image is his only-begotten Son; Paul teaches this in writing, “He is the image of the unseen God,” though “image” is being alike in substance and proof against change. Scripture says, remember, “The one who has seen me has seen the Father.” From God’s saying, Let us make a human being in our image and likeness, we should not form the idea of different images: there is not one image of Father and another of Son; if the person who saw the Son saw also the Father, and, as Paul says, the Son is “the exact imprint of God’s very being,” we should not think in terms of a different image, there being nothing created that is an image and imprint of God as far as being is concerned. Hence it is not said, “Let us make a human being as an image,” but in our image; it is from that image that we become images and resemble it, since the human being has been made capable of receiving the image. – Didymus the Blind, Commentary on Genesis, homily 1

16.27 And therefore the Apostle, refuting the impious opinions of heretics concerning the only-begotten Son and God, and proclaiming the identity of nature with his Father, and also the co-eternity, wrote, as has been already stated: “Who being the radiance of the glory of the Father,” 16.28 and added: “and the express image of his person.” And again, he wrote to the Colossians and to the Hebrews: “Who is the image of the invisible God.” 16.29 And in the Gospel according to John, the Son, showing that his essence is sealed with the character of the Father, said: “For him has the Father, God, sealed.” 16.30 The seal clearly co-exists with the archetype and is of equal form, and in itself perfectly and truly shows the unity of nature of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. For the seal, like the express image, signifies likeness and purity. 16.31 Since it is time to say that the Father himself would not be unbegotten and incomparable, if he were imaged and marked by one begotten and dissimilar. 16.32 These divine and inexpressible sayings, not rightly understanding, but twisting and contending with human thoughts against the words of God, they say: ‘God is one thing and the image of God another, as man is one thing and the image of man another.’ 16.33 And in a certain way they liken the living and active Word of God to an unmoving image. But in essence and in all things, he is the most perfect and eternal image of the Father, not in form and shape, like a molded or carved lifeless and unmoving statue, nor in appearance and color, like an artificial and imitative voiceless image. For these do not naturally, nor in all respects, reveal the original.– Didymus the Blind, On the Trinity, Book 1, chapter 16

16.41 And concerning a natural image, Moses also teaches thus: “Adam begot Seth according to his own likeness.” Seth was not by necessity of a different essence from Adam, and yet he called likeness the image and resemblance of essence. 16.42 But it is also written concerning man, that he is “the image and glory of God.” 16.43 But nowhere, O sirs, is it written that man or any other creature is “the radiance of the glory of God and the express image of his person.” 16.44 It is one thing for man to be an image of God, that is, the created of the creator, as a seat is of the carpenter (for Solomon says: “The maker is beheld in proportion to his works”), and it is another to be, in accordance with conformity, consubstantiality, and co-eternity, the radiance of glory and the express image of person, subsisting and most true. 16.45 For he says: “He who has seen me has seen the Father.” But he who has seen a man has not seen God, just as one who has seen a seat has not seen the carpenter. 16.46 And necessarily the image of the only invisible God is itself invisible, and not the visible man made in the image. 16.47 Therefore the Son is not like to another: for it is written, “Who shall be likened to the Lord among the sons of God?” Nor is he unlike to his own Father: “For I and the Father are one.” 16.48 But those who apply the idea of a created image to him are like Nebuchadnezzar, who commanded a lifeless image made by hands to be worshipped.“ – Didymus the Blind, On the Trinity, Book 1, chapter 16:41-16-48

Ambrose of Milan (339–397):

24. For visible things are not seen in the same way as He in whose power it lies to be seen, and whose nature it is not to be seen, but whose will it is to be seen. For if He does not wish, He is not seen; if He wishes, He is seen. For God appeared to Abraham because He willed it; to another, because He did not will it, He did not appear. It also seemed to Stephen, when he was being stoned by the people, that heaven opened; Jesus was also seen standing at the right hand of God, and yet He was not seen by the people (Acts 7:55). Isaiah saw the Lord of Hosts, but another was not able to see Him, because He appeared to whom it pleased Him (Isa. 6:1).

25. And why do we speak of human beings, when we have read even concerning the heavenly virtues and powers themselves that no one has ever seen God (John 1:18)? And he added what is beyond the heavenly powers: The Only-begotten Son, who is in the bosom of the Father, He has made Him known (ibid.). Therefore, if no one has ever seen God the Father, it must either be conceded that the Son was seen in the Old Testament—and let the heretics cease giving Him a beginning from the Virgin, who was seen before He was born of the Virgin—or certainly it cannot be refuted that either the Father, or the Son, or indeed the Holy Spirit (if nevertheless there is a vision of the Holy Spirit; cf. Augustine, cited above), is seen in that form which the Divine Will has chosen, not which nature has shaped; for we have also received that the Spirit was seen in a dove.

And for this reason no one has ever seen God: because no one has beheld, no one has comprehended with mind or eyes, that fullness of the Divinity which dwells in God. For “saw” must refer to both [mind and eye]. Finally, when it is added, The Only-begotten Son Himself has made Him known, a vision of minds rather than of eyes is declared; for a visible form is seen, but divine power is narrated—the former is comprehended by the eyes, the latter by the mind.

26. But what shall I say of the Trinity? A seraph appeared when it willed, and Isaiah alone heard its voice (Isa. 6:6). An angel appeared, and is now present, yet is not seen; nor is it in our power to see, but in his power to appear. Nevertheless, even if the power to see is not ours, there is grace by which we may merit the ability to see. Therefore, he who had grace merited the opportunity; we do not merit the opportunity, because we do not have the grace of seeing God.

27. And what wonder if in the present age the Lord is not seen except when He wills? In the resurrection itself it is not easy to see God, except for those who are pure in heart. And for this reason He says: Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God (Matt. 5:8). How many blessed people had He already enumerated, and yet He had not promised them the ability to see God! If, therefore, those who are pure in heart shall see God, others certainly shall not see Him. For neither shall the unworthy see God, nor can he who does not wish to see God see Him.

Nor is God seen in a physical place, but in a pure heart; nor is God sought with bodily eyes, nor circumscribed by sight, nor held by touch, nor heard by speech, nor perceived by movement. And when He is thought to be absent, He is seen; and when He is present, He is not seen. Finally, not even all the apostles truly saw Christ; and therefore He says: “Have I been with you so long a time, and yet you have not known Me?” (John 14:9). For he who has known what is the breadth, and length, and height, and depth, and the love of Christ which surpasses knowledge, has seen both Christ and the Father. For we no longer know Christ according to the flesh, but according to the Spirit; for Christ the Lord is a spirit before our face—may He deign by His mercy to fill us unto all the fullness of God, so that He may be seen by us. Therefore, the angel appeared to Zechariah at the right side of the altar of incense because he appeared when he willed, and did not appear as long as he did not will to do so. – Ambrose of Milan, Commentary on Luke 1:11

The flesh, therefore, cannot be made to the image of God. This is true, however, of our souls, which are free to wander far and wide in acts of reflection and of counsel. Our souls are able to envisage and reflect on all things. – Ambrose, Six Days of Creation, Day Six, chapter 45

48. The Apostle saith that Christ is the image of the Father—for he calls Him the image of the invisible God, the first-begotten of all creation. First-begotten, mark you, not first-created, in order that He may be believed to be both begotten, in virtue of His nature, and first in virtue of His eternity. In another place also the Apostle has declared that God made the Son “heir of all things, by Whom also He made the worlds, Who is the brightness of His glory, and the express image of His substance.”1The Apostle calls Christ the image of the Father, and Arius says that He is unlike the Father. Why, then, is He called an image, if He hath no likeness? Men will not have their portraits unlike them, and Arius contends that the Father is unlike the Son, and would have it that the Father has begotten one unlike Himself, as though unable to generate His like.

49. The prophets say: “In Thy light we shall see light;” and again: “Wisdom is the brightness of everlasting light, and the spotless mirror of God’s majesty, the image of His goodness.” See what great names are declared! “Brightness,” because in the Son the Father’s glory shines clearly: “spotless mirror,” because the Father is seen in the Son: “image of goodness,” because it is not one body seen reflected in another, but the whole power [of the Godhead] in the Son. The word “image” teaches us that there is no difference; “expression,” that He is the counterpart of the Father’s form; and “brightness” declares His eternity. The “image” in truth is not that of a bodily countenance, not one made up of colours, nor modelled in wax, but simply derived from God, coming out from the Father, drawn from the fountainhead.

50. By means of this image the Lord showed Philip the Father, saying, “Philip, he that sees Me, sees the Father also. How then dost thou say, Show us the Father? Believest thou not that I am in the Father, and the Father in Me?” Yes, he who looks upon the Son sees, in portrait, the Father. Mark what manner of portrait is spoken of. It is Truth, Righteousness, the Power of God: not dumb, for it is the Word; not insensible, for it is Wisdom; not vain and foolish, for it is Power; not soulless, for it is the Life; not dead, for it is the Resurrection. You see, then, that whilst an image is spoken of, the meaning is that it is the Father, Whose image the Son is, seeing that no one can be his own image. 51. More might I set down from the Son’s testimony; howbeit, lest He perchance appear to have asserted Himself overmuch, let us enquire of the Father. For the Father said, “Let us make man in Our image and likeness.” The Father saith to the Son “in Our image and likeness,” and thou sayest that the Son of God is unlike the Father. – Ambrose, Exposition of the Faith, chapters 48-51

14. Man however came forth the last of all created things, in form comely, in mind lofty, to be admired by all creatures, having in him, after the image of the eternal God, an invisible intelligence clothed in human form. This is that intelligence or power of the soul which claims to itself, as the ruling principle, authority over the soul and body. This it is that all other living creatures dread although they see it not, just as we fear God Whom we see not, and fear Him only the more because we see Him not. – Ambrose, Letter XLIII, chapters 14

22. Be thou then, after the likeness of God, one and the same; not sober to-day, drunken to-morrow; to-day pacific, to-morrow quarrelsome; to-day frugal, to-morrow immoderate; for each person is changed by diversity of manners and becomes another man, in whom that which he was is not recognized, while he begins to be that which he was not, degenerate from himself. It is a grievous thing to be changed for the worse. Be then as the image on the half-shekel, immutable, keeping daily the same deportment. Seeing the half-shekel, observe the image, that is, seeing the Law, observe in the Law Christ the Image of God; for He is the Image of the invisible and incorruptible God; let Him be displayed before you as in the mirror of the Law. Confess Him in the Law, that you may know Him again in the Gospel. If you have known Him in His precepts, acknowledge Him in works. – Ambrose, Letter VII

Consider well, I beseech you, and sift the sect of the Heathens; their professions are grand and lofty, but what they espouse is degenerate and effete, they talk of God but bow to images (simulacrum adorant). – Ambrose, Letter XVIII, chapter 2

You worship the works of your own hands, we think it sacrilege that any thing which can be made should be called God. God wills not to be worshipped under the form of stones. Nay, your very philosophers have ridiculed this…. How inconsistent are you, who insult by way of worship, and disparage by way of honour. You consider your god to be a block of wood; what an insulting kind of reverence! – Ambrose, Letter XVIII, chapters 8-9

• What Ambrose says about stones can be said about wood, brass, gold, and silver. It’s not just that FALSE gods shouldn’t be worshiped through lifeless images, but even the TRUE God does wills not to be worshiped under the form of lifeless matter. Compare with John of Damascus: “If the image of the king is the king, the image of Christ is Christ, and the image of a saint is the saint, and if power is not divided nor glory distributed, honouring the image becomes honouring the one who is set forth in the image.” – John of Damascus, On Holy Images, part 1, chapter 36

It is said, therefore, that in investigating the truth, we must observe what is seemly. We ought to look for what is true with the greatest care. We must not put forward falsehood for truth, nor hide the truth in darkness, nor fill the mind with idle, involved, or doubtful matters. What is so unseemly as to venerate (venerari) a wooden thing, which men themselves have made? What shows such darkness as to discuss subjects connected with geometry and astronomy (which they approve of), to measure the depths of space, to shut up heaven and earth within the limits of fixed numbers, to leave aside the grounds of salvation and to seek for error? Moses, learned as he was in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, did not approve of those things, but thought that kind of wisdom both harmful and foolish. Turning away therefrom, he sought God with all the desire of his heart, and thus saw, questioned, heard Him when He spoke. Who is more wise than he whom God taught, and who brought to nought all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and all the powers of their craft by the might of his works? He did not treat things unknown as well known, and so rashly accept them. Yet these philosophers, though they do not consider it contrary to nature, nor shameful for themselves to bow down to (adorare), and to ask help from an image (simulacra) which knows nothing, teach us that these two things mentioned in the words just spoken, which are in accordance both with nature and with virtue, ought to be avoided. – Ambrose, On The Duties of The Clergy, paragraphs 122-123

14. What answer will you give to the priest when he says to you, ‘the Church seeks not your gifts, because you have adorned the heathen temples with gifts; the Altar of Christ rejects your gifts, because you have erected altars to images (simulacris), for it was your word, your hand, your signature, your act: the Lord Jesus refuses and repels your service, because you have served idols (idolis), for He has said to you, “Ye cannot serve two masters?” – Ambrose, Letter XVII, chapter 14

• Let this be said to every Cathodox: The church rejects your gifts, because you have erected shrines to images – your precious prayer corners!

10. They add also the cause of their departure, that Laban had lost the true glory and those stores of good treasure in which we are born. Vigour of mind has been given us, and the good coinage of God’s image and likeness, which is a spiritual coinage. He lost these because he preferred the splendour of this world to things true and profitable for his true life; for the beauty of these things escapes one who is ignorant of the good things of God, while in his judgment of what is beautiful he deludes and deceives himself. – Ambrose, Letter VII, chapter 10

Further, it is the Lord Jesus Himself who was prefigured in Jacob, a man of two marriages, that is, one who shares both in the law and in grace. He admired the virgin Rachel first; she was predetermined to marriage with him and he loved her with devoted affection. But Lia, like the law, entered in secretly and took him by surprise, and her eyes were somewhat weak, like the synagogue, that could not see Christ from blindness of spirit. – Ambrose, Seven Exegetical Works, Jacob and the Happy Life, 5:25

So, when Laban [Satan] examined Jacob’s [Jesus’] dwelling, he found nothing useless or purposeless there, no representations or likeness of vain idols. For in his dwelling there was no image, but the reality, no likeness of ignorance, but the solid figure of justice and the symbolic expression of living virtue. And thus Laban searched through Jacob’s spiritual dwelling and found no likenesses, for it was filled, not with representations but with realities. – Ambrose, Seven Exegetical Works, Flight from the World, 4.22

It is not by such guides as these that we arrive at the Church of Christ, to which Jacob was bending his steps, to carry down thither the wealth of the nations and the riches of the Gentiles, that he might transplant thither his posterity, flying from the shadows of empty things, preferring to senseless images of virtues their breathing beauty, and serious things to outward show. – Ambrose, Letter XVIII, chapter 13

• Compare this identical statement above to Lactantius: “To what purport to bestow such great expenditure on the forming or worshipping of images? The human breast is a stronger and more uncorrupted temple: let this rather be adorned, let this be filled with the true deities. For they who thus worship the virtues—that is, who pursue the shadows and images of virtues—cannot hold the very things which are true.”

Moreover, holy Rachel—that is, the Church, or wisdom—hid the images (simulacra), because the Church knows nothing of empty ideas and the vain figures of images (simulacrorum); rather, she knows the true substance of the Trinity. – Ambrose, Seven Exegetical Works, Flight from the World, chapter 5.27 (Patrologia Latina, Volume 14, column 611)

What great mysteries these are! There, there is the Church of God, in which God appears and speaks with His humble servants. There the idols of the nations are taken away and buried, for the faith of the Church has destroyed every practice of paganism. – Ambrose, Seven Exegetical Works, Jacob and the Happy Life, chapter 7.33

There is also the more excellent man, of whom it is said, “But the spiritual man judges all things, and he himself is judged by no man.” Such a one is more excellent than others. On this account David also says, “What is man, that you are mindful of him or the son of man that you visit him? Man is become like to vanity.” Man according to the image of God is not like to vanity, but he who has lost it and has fallen into sin and has tumbled into material things – such a man is like to vanity. The soul therefore is excellent according to its nature, but it generally becomes subject to corruption through its irrationality, so that it inclines to bodily pleasures and to willfulness, while it does not keep to moderation; or else it is deceived by the imagination, turns to matter, and is glued to the body. Thus its visibility is hindered, and it is filled with evil, for while it is intent on evil, it fills itself with vices and grows more unrestrained from the want of goodness. Moreover the perfect soul turns away from matter, shuns and rejects everything that is excessive or inconstant or wicked, and neither sees nor approaches this earthly defilement and corruption. It is attentive to things divine but shuns earthly matter. – Ambrose, Seven Exegetical Works (Isaac, or the Soul), chapters 2.4-2.5

Therefore the soul that cleaves to the invisible God, good and immortal, flees from the things of this body, abandons earthly and mortal concerns, and becomes like to the object of its desire, in which it lives and has its sustenance. – Ambrose, Seven Exegetical Works, Death as a Good, chapter 9.41

Indeed “the king brought me to his inner apartment.” Blessed the soul that enters the inner chambers. For, rising up from the body, she becomes more distant from all, and she searches and seeks within herself, if in any way she can pursue the divine. And when she can obtain it, having passed beyond intelligible things, she is strengthened in it and fed by it. Such was Paul, who knew that he had been caught up into paradise but did not know whether he had been caught up in the body or out of the body. For his soul had risen up from the body, had withdrawn from the vitals and the bonds of the flesh, and had lifted herself up. And he was made alien to himself by himself and held within his very self the secret words which he heard and could not reveal, because, as he remarked, it was not permitted a man to speak such thoughts. And so the good soul scorns visible and material things and does not linger over them or delay or tarry in despising them. Rather, she rises to things eternal and immaterial and filled with wonders, for she rises with pure thought from pious mind. – Ambrose, Seven Exegetical Works (Isaac, or The Soul), chapter 4.11

If anyone then has deserved to see that pure and incorporeal supreme good, what else would he have to desire? Indeed Peter saw the glory of Christ’s resurrection and did not wish to go down, for he said, “Lord, it is good for us to be here.” And how much more beyond compare is the glory of divinity and the inaccessible light than anything else one may see and desire? Kingdoms are not comparable, nor riches nor honors nor glory nor powers; for in the use of them there is no blessedness, but the employment of this supreme good is blessed, that a man may look down on such things, turn to this good, and remain in it. And so, seeing this fair image, let him enter within but leave the likeness of the body outside. For a man who looks to bodily things ought not to look inward; else he may be caught up like one who is sinking in a whirlpool and be swallowed and appear nowhere in sight, like a man plunged into the depths. – Ambrose, Seven Exegetical Works (Isaac, or the Soul), chapter 8.78

First of all, the Apostle taught you that those things are not to be considered “which we see, but the things which are not seen, for the things which are seen are temporal, but the things which are not seen are eternal.” For you read elsewhere: “That the invisible things of God, since the creation of the world, are understood through those things which have been made; His eternal power also and Godhead are estimated by His works.” Wherefore also the Lord Himself says: “If ye believe not Me, believe at least the works.” Believe, then, that the presence of the Godhead is there. – Ambrose, On The Mysteries, Chapter 3

Basil of Caesarea (330-379 AD):

Hence, through this one blasphemy he rejects all the terms handed down by the Holy Spirit for the glorification of the Only-Begotten, even though the gospel teaches that the Father, God, has set his seal upon him [Jn 6.27], and the Apostle [says] that he is the image of the invisible God [Col 1.15]. He is not a lifeless image, nor handmade, nor a product of art or conceptualization, but a living image, or rather self-existent life which always preserves the indistinguishability, not by likeness of shape, but in his very substance. – Basil of Caesarea, Against Eunomius, Book 1, Chapter 18

You have professed your faith in Father, Son and Holy Ghost. Do not abandon this deposit; the Father—origin of all; the Son—Only begotten, begotten of Him, very God, Perfect of Perfect, living image, shewing the whole Father in Himself; – Letter 105, chapter 1

Since, therefore, he who has seen the Son sees also the Father, as the Lord says in the Gospels/Ion this account the Apostle asserts that the Only-begotten is ‘the image of the person’ of the Father. And in order that the thought may be more clearly perceived, we shall also include in our discussion other words of the Apostle in which he says that the Son is an ‘image of the invisible God,’ and, again, ‘an image of his goodness,’ not because the image differs from the archetype as far as concerns the meaning of invisibility and goodness, but in order that it may be shown that it is identical with the original although it is something else. For, the meaning of ‘image’ would not be preserved unless in all respects it would be clearly and exactly similar to the archetype. Certainly, then, he who has perceived the beauty of the image arrives at an understanding of the archetype. And he who has conceived in his mind the ‘form,’ as it were, of the Son conceives an ‘image of his [Father’s] person,’ in looking at the latter through the former, since he does not behold the unbegottenness of the Father in the representation (for surely, then, the Son would be wholly the same and not some one else), but observing closely the unbegotten beauty in the Begotten. For, as he who has noticed in a clean mirror the reflection of a form has a clear knowledge of the face reflected, so he who has learned to know the Son has received in his heart the ‘image of his [Father’s] person’ through the knowledge of the Son. For, all the attributes of the Father are beheld in the Son, and all the attributes of the Son belong also to the Father, since both the whole Son remains in the Father and has the whole Father in Himself. Therefore, the person of the Son becomes, as it were, the form and face of the knowledge of the Father, and the person of the Father is known in the form of the Son, although the individuality observed in them remains for the clear distinction of their persons. – Basil of Caesarea, Letter 38. To His Brother Gregory

For our mind, enlightened by the Spirit, looks at the Son, and in Him, as in an image, beholds the Father. – Basil of Casarea, To the Ascetics Under Him, chapter 3

The Only-Begotten is the image of the invisible God, and image not of the bodily figure, but of the very Godhead and of the mighty qualities attributed to the essence of God, image of power, image of wisdom, as Christ is called “the power of God and the wisdom of God”? – Basil of Casarea, Letter 236, To the same Amphilochius, chapter 1

[Compare to the idiot quoted by John of Damascus, Simeon of Mount Thaumastus on Images: “Possibly a contentious unbeliever will maintain that we, worshipping images in our churches, are convicted of praying to lifeless idols. Far be it from us to do this. Faith makes Christians, and God, who cannot deceive, works miracles. We do not rest contented with mere colouring. With the material picture before our eyes we see the invisible God through the visible representation, and glorify Him as if present….” – Against Those Who Decry Holy Images, chapter 141]

Meditation on the divinely inspired Scriptures is also a most important means for the discovery of duty. The Scriptures not only propose to us counsels for the conduct of life, but also open before us the lives of the blessed handed down in writing as living images for our imitation of life spent in quest of God. – Basil of Caesarea, Letter 2. Basil to Gregory

The Spirit’s closeness to the soul does not occur through an approach of place. For how could one come near in a bodily manner to the incorporeal? It occurs through separation from the passions, which arise in the soul following friendship toward the flesh and alienate it from closeness to God. So then, being purified from the ugliness smeared on through evil and returning to the beauty of [human] nature and as it were through purity restoring to the royal image its ancient form is the only manner of approaching the Paraclete. And he, like a sun joining itself to a purified eye, will show you in himself the image of the invisible. And in the blessed vision of the Image you will see the ineffable beauty of the Archetype. Through the Spirit, hearts are lifted up, the weak are led by the hand, those making progress are perfected. It is he who, shining on those purified from every stain, through communion with himself shows them forth as spiritual. And just as limpid and transparent bodies, when the sun’s ray falls upon them, themselves become radiant and shine with another ray from themselves, so the Spirit-bearing souls illumined by the Spirit themselves become spiritual and send forth the grace to others. From this comes foreknowledge of future events, understanding of mysteries, comprehension of hidden things, distribution of gifts, heavenly citizenship, dancing with angels, joy without end, abiding in God, likeness to God, and the summit of desires, becoming god. – Basil of Caesarea, On The Holy Spirit, Chapter 9

And when, by means of the power that enlightens us, we fix our eyes on the beauty of the image of the invisible God, and through the image are led up to the supreme beauty of the spectacle of the archetype, then, I hope, is with us inseparably the Spirit of knowledge, in Himself bestowing on them that love the vision of the truth the power of beholding the Image, not making the exhibition from without, but in Himself leading on to the full knowledge. “No man knows the Father save the Son. And so no man can say that Jesus is the Lord but by the Holy Ghost.” 1 Corinthians 12:3 For it is not said through the Spirit, but by the Spirit, and God is a spirit, and they that worship Him must worship Him in spirit and in truth (John 4:24), as it is written in your light shall we see light, namely by the illumination of the Spirit, the true light which lights every man that comes into the world (John 1:9). It results that in Himself He shows the glory of the Only begotten, and on true worshippers He in Himself bestows the knowledge of God. – Basil of Caesarea, On The Holy Spirit, Chapter 18

We do not fritter away the theology in a divided plurality, because one Form, so to say, united in the invariableness of the Godhead, is beheld in God the Father, and in God the Only begotten. For the Son is in the Father and the Father in the Son; since such as is the latter, such is the former, and such as is the former, such is the latter; and herein is the Unity. So that according to the distinction of Persons, both are one and one, and according to the community of Nature, one. How, then, if one and one, are there not two Gods? Because we speak of a king, and of the king’s image, and not of two kings. The majesty is not cloven in two, nor the glory divided. The sovereignty and authority over us is one, and so the doxology ascribed by us is not plural but one; because the honour paid to the image passes on to the prototype. Now what in the one case the image is by reason of imitation, that in the other case the Son is by nature; and as in works of art the likeness is dependent on the form, so in the case of the divine and uncompounded nature the union consists in the communion of the Godhead. – Basil, on the Holy Spirit, Chapter 18

• Ask any Cathodox if we Christians can bow to statues of emperors and burn incense to them, and they’ll say they don’t ACTUALLY do that, which refutes this idea that Basil approves of worshiping the statues of emperors like the pagans do, and yet when we read the transcript of the Second Council of Nicaea, they DO approve of worshiping the emperor’s image!

“For if the people go forth with lights and incense to meet the laurata and images of the Emperors when they are sent to cities or rural districts, they honour surely not the tablet covered over with wax, but the Emperor himself. How much more is it necessary that in the churches of Christ our God, the image of God our Saviour and of his spotless Mother and of all the holy and blessed fathers and ascetics should be painted?”]

As then we speak of the worship offered in the Image of God the Father as worship in the Son, so too do we speak of worship in the Spirit as showing in Himself the Godhead of the Lord. Wherefore even in our worship the Holy Spirit is inseparable from the Father and the Son. If you remain outside the Spirit you will not be able even to worship at all; and on your becoming in Him you will in no way be able to dissever Him from God — any more than you will divorce light from visible objects. For it is impossible to behold the Image of the invisible God except by the enlightenment of the Spirit, and impracticable for him to fix his gaze on the Image to dissever the light from the Image, because the cause of vision is of necessity seen at the same time as the visible objects. Thus fitly and consistently do we behold the Brightness of the glory of God by means of the illumination of the Spirit, and by means of the Express Image we are led up to Him of whom He is the Express Image and Seal, graven to the like. – Basil of Caesarea, On The Holy Spirit, Chapter 28

In what sense are we according to the image of God? Let us purify ourselves of an ill-informed heart, an uneducated conception about God. If we came into being according to the image of God, they say, God is of the same shape as ourselves; there are eyes in God and ears, a head, hands, a behind on which to sit – for it says in Scripture that God sits [Cf. Ps 46.91 – feet with which to walk. So is not God like this? Put away from your heart unseemly fantasies. Expel from your reason things not in accord with the greatness of God. God is without structure and simple. Do not imagine a shape in regard to him. Do not diminish the Great One in a Jewish way. Do not enclose God in bodily concepts, nor circumscribe him according to your own mind. He is incomprehensible in greatness. Consider what a great thing is, and add to the greatness more than you have conceived, and to the more add more, and be persuaded that your thought does not reach boundless things. Do not conceive a shape; God is understood from his power, from the simplicity of his nature, not greatness in size. He is everywhere and surpasses all; and he is intangible, invisible, who indeed escapes your grasp. He is not circumscribed by size, nor encompassed by a shape, nor measured by power, nor enclosed by time, nor bounded by limits. Nothing is with God as it is with us. – Basil of Caesarea (possibly written by Gregory of Nyssa), On The Origin of Humanity, Discourse 1, chapter 5

How then does Scripture say that we have come into being according to the image of God? Let us learn the things concerning God and understand those concerning ourselves, that we do not have that which is according to the image in our bodily shape. For the shape of a body is corruptible. The incorruptible is not depicted in the corruptible, nor is the corruptible an image of the incorruptible. The human body is different in youth and in old age, different in health than in sickness, different in fear than in happiness, different in abundance than in need, different in peace than in war. It has a different color when awake and when asleep; in one case more red blossoms, as heat goes to the outside, in the other case the heat cools to the depth. Therefore also the bodies of those sleeping are yellowish. – Basil of Caesarea, On The Origin of Humanity, Discourse 1, chapter 6

“They shall flee in the midday darkness.” (Isaiah 16:3). It seems that the middle of the day has the more bright and clear light. The truth can be perceived from observation of the created world by those who devote themselves intelligently to the laws of the creation. So those who live in the world and are illuminated from every side by God’s wisdom yet are ill through ignorance of God, those are the very men who stay in the midday darkness. All matters have a midday, whereas in the souls of the ignorant there remains darkness. Such men flee in the midday darkness, they were deranged! because their doctrines do not differ from the delusions which the delirious form in their mind. “Derangement” is an interpretation of “midday darkness”, since those also who are driven out of their mind by some disease cannot conceive the sun to shine, or the light to brighten the air. It really is a derangement and plain insanity, when everything so manifestly proclaims the power of Him Who made us, to hold to idols and moulded images, and to deify what is not, to be often carried outside the truth through heretical doctrines, and having stepped as it were out of the light to pass one’s life in darkness. – Basil the Great, Commentary on the Prophet Isaiah, chapter 16

“And the land was filled with the abominations of the works of their hands.” The pagan practices, having taken their beginning from omens, advancing through love of money and a passion for horses, ran aground into idolatry. For because of their turning away from the counsel of God and paying attention to omens, because of not trusting in God but in the uncertainty of wealth, because of relying on horses, which are false for salvation, and not on the one who is able to crush wars, they consequently proceeded to fill their land with abominations. Therefore, every action that is performed contrary to right reason is an abomination to God. As those who are squeamish and easily nauseated turn away from foul sights, such as the expulsion of excrement and stinking sores and such things, so also are the activities of impurity an abomination to the Holy One. Since Scripture is accustomed to call idols abominations in the proper sense, all the wicked fantasies that are impressed upon the soul by way of depiction are abominations filling the land, that is, all the broad space of the rational part of the soul. “And they worshiped what their fingers had made.” O the excess of madness, to consider what was made by oneself to be God, and not to perceive the absurdity of what is happening. For if you admire the material, why indeed do you not also worship (προσκυνεῖς) the unformed bronze or stone? But if it is because of the craftsmanship, worship your own hands that imposed the form on it, or the tools by which you fashioned it. And how great is the folly in not, during so great a passage of time in which the image was being carved or cast, coming to a realization of what was being done? For this is what “And they worshiped what their fingers had made” signifies. Then, however, he will be forced to choose one of two things: either not to have a God before he formed one by himself, or for the pre-existing one to have grown old, because another is needed. “Cursed is every man who will make a carved or molten thing, the work of a craftsman’s hands. And man bowed down, and a male was brought low.” I think these things were said indignantly, as he could not bear the fall of men from their dignity. Man (he says) bowed down to the idol in worship, the most honorable of living things on earth, the one ranked with the Angels among rational beings, the one honored with the image of God, the one who through the power of reason invented the arts. Having understood the things on the earth, the powers of plants and roots and fruits, having dared the sea, the nature of the air, the origin of winds, the position of stars, their movements, distances, conjunctions; the ordering of the earth, the cities, the laws, the strategies, [having invented] the arts necessary for life and those for beautification and display, this one fell down before an idol, as if praying for salvation from it, the ensouled from the soulless, the rational from the senseless. The one who has taken beasts under his hand, to whom all irrational things are subjected into servitude (through God who subjected them to us, who in this gave us what is according to the image, in having dominion over the things in the water as well as those on land) this one, not to one of the irrational animals that excel in strength, but to the likeness of one of the irrational animals, or even of some unseemly woman, or of a most shameful man, does not even dare to stand as an equal, but fearing, and having bowed to the earth, being worthy not even to look up to heaven … because of the sin against the heavenly one. And man bowed down, and a male was brought low. An intensification of the evil, that a male, the more ruling, the more perfect in thought, the more powerful in actions, this one having forgotten his own dignity, was brought low under the idol. He who is the image and glory of God, who has Christ as his head, was brought low under the idol; and this, a male. This is the most grievous part of the misfortune. For if it were a child, if a woman, there would have been some pardon, for the one because of his age, for the other because of her natural weakness. But now a male was brought low, which surpasses all excess of shame. And I will not forgive them. Oh, the things threatened! Surely this [saying] is not on account of eternal punishment: “I will not forgive them”? For as long as they practiced divination, as long as they multiplied foreign children among themselves, as long as they were frantic for silver, as long as they equipped cavalry, there was hope and expectation of relief; but since they have fallen into idolatry, the last of evils, and not perceiving their own dignity, they render honors equal to God to an idol, “I will not forgive.“ – Basil the Great, Commentary on the Prophet Isaiah, chapter 2

Ambrosiaster (366 – 384 AD):

“But they became futile in their thinking.” Truly, futility consists in this, that, while they recognized the truth, they thought that something else should be worshiped, something they did not know to be true. Thus, turning away from God, they worshiped idols. “And their foolish heart was darkened.” A cloud of error has covered their heart because, although properly they ought to honor the creator all the more on account of the things he made, they became dull-minded. Having abandoned God, they said that for them it was sufficient to worship only these things they see. – Ambrosiaster, Commentary on Romans 1:21

“Claiming to be wise, they became stupid.” … Therefore, they are stupid, for if these things are praiseworthy, how much more is their creator! Nevertheless, when they are ashamed for having disregarded God, they usually have some poor excuse. They say that through these things one can come to God, just as one is led to the king by the count. Let this be granted. But is anyone so mad or reckless about his life as to claim the king’s honorary title for the count? If people were found out even discussing such an idea, they would be justly condemned for treason. Yet these people who consider themselves wise do not think that they are guilty when they claim the honor of God’s name for the creation and, having abandoned the master, worship their fellow servants, as if there were something else reserved for God above and beyond this. In fact, the reason one approaches the king through the tribunes or counts is that the king is only human and does not know to whom he should entrust public office. But to gain the favor of God, from whom nothing whatsoever is hid (he knows everyone’s merits), one does not need an endorser, but only a devout mind. Wherever a devout person speaks to him, he will answer him. – Ambrosiaster, Commentary on Romans 1:22

“And they changed the glory of the incorruptible God into the likeness of an image of a corruptible human being.” Their heart was so blinded that they transformed the majesty of the invisible God, whom they had recognized from these works, not into human beings but—what is worse and an unpardonable offense—into the likeness of human beings. Thus, the form of a corruptible human being—that is, a figure of a human being—is called God by these people; they admit images of the dead, whom they would not dare give this name while they are living, into the glory of God. What stupidity, what foolishness, that these people, for whom an image avails more than the truth and the dead are mightier than the living, call themselves wise to their own damnation! Falling away from the living God, they prefer the dead, in whose company they belong, as it is written in the Wisdom of Solomon: “The dead fashions the dead with wicked hands” (Wis 15:17). This is said in the Wisdom of Solomon about such people. – Ambrosiaster, Commentary on Romans 1:23

“And since they thought that God took no notice of these things, God gave them up to a debased mind, so that they do things that are unseemly.” For having wrongly worshiped images, they were given up to performing shameful acts with each other, as has already been said. – Ambrosiaster, Commentary on Romans 1:28

In fact, these authors of evil, having become imitators of their father the devil, came up with the evil of idolatry, through which all the vices and the greatest ruin were brought into the world. (2a) Now although the devil, whom the scripture testifies sinned from the beginning (see 1 John 3:8), aspires to tyrannical audacity, he nevertheless has not dared to declare, to say: I am God (see 2 Thess 2:4). Thus, among other things he says to God: All these have been given over to me (see Luke 4:6); he does not say: They are from me, or: They are mine. In the book of Job he asks that power be given to him (see Job 2:6), and in the prophet Zechariah he presumes to oppose the high priest (see Zech 3:1); he does not arrogate power to himself. For this reason those who claim divinity not only for the elements but even for images are worse [than the Devil]. – Ambrosiaster, Commentary on Romans 1:29

Nevertheless, when they neglected God and began to accept images with the honor due to God, their minds were corrupted and they suppressed part of natural law, the first part. Natural law, in fact, has three parts. The first of these is that the creator is to be recognized and honored, and that his splendor and majesty are not to be accorded to anyone except the Son. The second part is the moral part, that is, the part whereby one lives well under the guidance of moderation. It is fitting that a person who has knowledge of the creator govern his life according to the law, so that this knowledge not be rendered useless. The third part, finally, is the instructive part whereby one conveys knowledge of God the creator and an example of behavior to others, so that they learn how merit is laid up with the creator. This is true Christian prudence. – Ambrosiaster, Commentary on Romans 5:13

“For those who are in the flesh cannot please God.” The wise of the world are in the flesh because they pursue a wisdom by which they oppose the law of God. Whatever is against the law of God is fleshly because it is derived from the world. The entire world is flesh. Everything that is visible is deemed to be of the flesh. Things that share the same origin are of the flesh. Indeed, the elements are of the flesh. So too, one who conforms to worldly matters and concerns is in the flesh. – Ambrosiaster, Commentary on Romans 8:8

“You, however, are not in the flesh, but in the Spirit.” Those who are in the flesh are said not to be in the flesh if, concurring with the apostle John, they do not love the world [1 John 2:15–16: Do not love the world or the things in the world. If anyone loves the world, the love of the Father is not in him]. For a person’s thinking essentially shapes that person’s nature, so that one is named in accordance with what one thinks. – Ambrosiaster, Commentary on Romans 8:9

When he dwelt among humans, he appeared as God by his acts and works. “For the form of God” differs in nothing from God. Indeed, the reason for his being called the form and image of God is to make it apparent that he himself, though distinguishable from God the Father, is everything that God is.… His works revealed his form. Since his works were not those of a human, he whose work or form was that of God was perceived to be God. For what is “the form of God?” Is it not shown by the evidences given of his divinity—by his raising of the dead, his restoration of hearing to the deaf, his cleansing of lepers? – Ambrosiaster, Epistle to the Philippians 2.6-2.8.5

Rufinus of Aquileia (340-410 AD):

Then he ordered the Galileans, for thus he called our people, to come and remove the martyr’s tomb. The whole church therefore came together, mothers and men, virgins and youths, and with immense rejoicing pulled along the martyr’s coffin in a long procession singing psalms with loud cries and exultation and saying, “May all those be put to shame who worship carven idols and who trust in their images!” This psalm the whole church sang in the hearing of the sacrilegious sovereign over a distance of six miles with such exultation that the sky rang with the shouts. – Rufinus, Church History, book 10, chapter 36

Jerome (342-420 AD):

“And He said to me: Surely you have seen, son of man: is it a light thing to the house of Judah that they should commit these abominations which they have committed here? For, filling the land with iniquity, they have turned to provoke Me; and behold, they apply the branch to their nostrils.” (Ezekiel 8:17) Instead of what we rendered, “And behold, they apply the branch to their nostrils,” the Seventy translated: “And behold, they themselves as though mocking”; to which, from Theodotion, was added, “They stretch out a branch,” so that the whole may read together: “And behold, they stretch out the branch as though mocking.” Symmachus interpreted it as: “as though they were sending forth a sound like a song through their nostrils.” Now this signifies the twenty-five men, who are set firmly in a square formation and, through the five senses multiplied five times, make the figure of a square: not only do they have the temple behind their backs, but, after the manner of idolaters, they apply a branch to their nostrils—without doubt, branches of palms, which in Greek are called βαΐα—so that by this he may signify that they worship idols. Finally, Job also says that among his other virtues he had this: that, when he looked upon heaven, the sun, the moon, and the shining stars, he never “kissed his hand,” that is, worshipped created things. (Job 31:26–28) – Jerome, Commentary on Ezekiel, Book 3, chapter 8:17, Migne PL 25.84C-D

Because Hezekiah prayed to the Lord so boldly, and did not send for Isaiah as he had done before, the Prophet does not go to him himself, but sends messengers to speak to him in the words of God: Regarding Sennacherib, against whom you pray, this is the sentence of the Lord: “The virgin Daughter of Zion, and the daughter of Jerusalem”—who is called “virgin and daughter” for this reason: because while all the other nations worship (adorantibus) the images of dead men, she alone preserves the chastity of the religion of God and the worship (cultum) of the one divinity—“has mocked you and despised you.” And she, so that she might not provoke you to greater blasphemy, did not answer you while you were present; but after you departed, she wagged her head, certain of vengeance and secure against punishment. And she spoke these words: “It is not against me, but against the Lord that you have grown proud—and you did not do this yourself, but through your servants, so that the arrogance of the blasphemer might be even greater. For you said that in the multitude of your chariots you would ascend the height of the mountains, and the ridges of Lebanon, and cut down its lofty cedars and choice fir trees.” – Jerome, Commentary on Isaiah 37:21

Moreover, this discourse is directed against the idolaters of that time, when the prophet Isaiah was announcing things to come to the peoples; and he rebukes those who, having despised the religion of Almighty God, bow down to wooden images and worship the works of their own hands. Let us, therefore, run through the details. “Thus says the Lord, the King of Israel”—who is to believe in me—“and his Redeemer”—who will receive the coming of my Son: the Lord of hosts and of powers, and the Almighty. For this is what Sabaoth means in Hebrew. “I am the first, and I am the last, I am the Alpha and the Omega; and besides me there is no God,” because the Servant whom I have chosen is God in me. Concerning whom I have said above: “Behold my servant, whom I have chosen; my elect, in whom my soul delights; he will bring forth judgment to the Gentiles; and in his name the Gentiles shall hope.” – Jerome, Commentary on Isaiah 44:6

Indeed, not only the things that are made, but even those who make them will be considered as nothing. And when the time of vengeance arrives, the works of their own hands—blind and unfeeling things that bring shame upon their craftsmen—will by no means be able to deliver them. For who could believe this: that a God is formed by an ax, a file, a drill, and a hammer? And that idols are either cast over burning coals, or suddenly rise up as gods by means of a builder’s square, a plane, corner-tools, and a compass? This is especially true when the worthlessness of the craft is demonstrated by the hunger and thirst of the craftsman himself. For a wooden statue is made, expressing the human form; and the more beautiful it is, the more confined its God is thought to be. It is placed in a shrine and shut up in an eternal prison—this thing which grew for a long time in the forest glades, and, according to the variety of trees, was once a cedar, a holm-oak, an oak, or a pine. And in a marvelous fashion, its fragments and shavings are thrown into the hearth to warm the craftsman of the God and to cook various meals. Yet the other part is fashioned into a God so that, once the work is finished, its maker may worship it and pray for help from his own handiwork! He does not understand, nor does he reflect—nay, he does not even perceive with the eyes of the flesh or the mind—that something whose other half was burned in the fire cannot be a God, and that divine majesty cannot be made by the hand of man. The prophetic discourse weaves a fuller mockery concerning the derision of idols; these things are easily understood and do not require an elaborate, or rather, superfluous exposition. Concerning this, Flaccus [Horace] also writes in his Satires, mocking the idols of the Gentiles (Satires, Book I, Satire 8). – Jerome, Commentary on Isaiah 44:6

• But the Cathodox would say, “We don’t believe divine majesty can be made by the hand of man!” Oh really? Don’t you believe your icons are the image of God? “Yes.” And don’t you believe Jesus’ body was divine? “Yes.” And don’t you believe matter can be divine? “Yes.” If matter can be divine, and Jesus’ body was divine, and the image of God is found in Jesus, then don’t you fashion divinity when you fashion “the image of God?” Then you’re admitting you DO believe divinity can be constructed by the hand of man.

This must be said: that the mute and unfeeling images of men can do neither good nor evil, nor can they know the past or the future, because they are from nothing and from that which does not exist; and it is not so much the idols themselves that are worthy of utter abomination, but rather the person who worships (adores) them. “The idols of the Gentiles are silver and gold, the works of the hands of men. They have mouths, and they will not speak” (Ps. 113:13 / Ps. 115:4-5). How, then, can they know and announce things to come, or recount the past, and do good or evil, when they possess the senses of neither humans nor of brute beasts? Nor does it matter from what material they appear to be made, since all of them are earthly. – Jerome, Commentary on Isaiah 41:21

According to the Septuagint, who translated: “You who are carried from the womb, and are instructed from infancy even unto old age,” this signifies that they meditate upon the law of God day and night in vain, since they have no true knowledge of God, but instead venerate images of men and beasts. This goes so far that they stand in need of prophetic rebuke, through which God speaks to them: “To whom have you likened me, and made me equal?” and the rest: how they gathered gold and silver, and having hired a statue-maker, fashioned idols and worshiped the works of their own hands—things that must be carried on shoulders, and which, though fastened and fixed in place, have no power to move themselves or to benefit those by whom they are worshiped. We pass over these manifest things quickly, so that, by the mercy of Christ, we may unlock what is hidden. – Jerome, Commentary on Isaiah 46:1-3

“Because I myself begot you, I myself carried you, and from infancy even unto old age you are saved—not by your own merit, but by my mercy: abandon the idols you have made, and return to the worship of the one God. Repent; groan for the error that held you captive; or rather, ground yourselves, so that a sudden whirlwind of idolatry may not overthrow you once again. And return to your heart”—that is, to your right mind—“you who, by venerating images, were striking against logs and stones like madmen. Consider from the beginning of the world that besides me there is no God, nor could anyone else have known things to come except me, who announces through the Prophets what I am about to do—so that when I fulfill what was foretold, I may prove my divinity by my foreknowledge.” – Jerome, Commentary on Isaiah 46:8

(CAP. III) (Chapter III.–Verse 1.) Nebuchadnezzar the king made a golden statue sixty cubits in height, six cubits in width. Swift is the forgetting of the truth, that he who shortly before had worshiped (adoraverat) the servant of God as if he were God, now orders a statue to be made for himself, so that he himself might be worshiped (adoretur) in the statue. That it is golden and of infinite weight is for this reason: to create astonishment in those seeing it, and so that an inanimate object might be worshiped as God (adoretur ut Deus), while each person consecrates his own greed. But an opportunity of salvation is given to the barbarian nations through the occasion of the captives (Coloss. III): so that those who had first known the power of the one God through Daniel’s revelation might also learn, in the fortitude of the three youths, to despise death [or, that death ought to be despised], and not to worship (colere) idols.

(Vers. 2.) Therefore King Nebuchadnezzar sent to gather together the satraps, magistrates and judges, leaders and tyrants, and prefects, and all the princes of the regions. High positions stand more perilously, and things that are lofty fall more quickly. The princes are gathered to worship (adorandum) the statue, so that through the princes the peoples might also be led astray. For those who are rich and powerful, while they fear to lose their riches and power, are more easily overthrown. And once the magistrates have been seduced, the subject peoples perish by the example of their superiors.

(Vers. 4, 5.) And the herald cried out loudly: “It is said to you, peoples, tribes, and languages: at the hour when you hear the sound of the trumpet,” etc. Not that all the peoples of every nation could have been gathered in the plain of Dura to worship (adorare) the golden statue, but that in the princes of all the nations, all the peoples and nations are believed to have worshiped (adorasse). Running through all of Holy Scripture in my mind (unless forgetfulness deceives me), I nowhere find that any of the saints fell down and worshiped (cadens adoraverit) God: but whoever worshiped (adoraverit) idols, and demons, and unlawful things, is said to worship (adorare) by falling down, as in the present passage not once but repeatedly. And in the Gospel the devil says to the Lord: “All these things I will give you, if falling down you worship (cadens adoraveris) me” (Matt. IV, 9). But this too must be said: all heretics who, by the brilliance of secular eloquence, compose false doctrine, make a golden statue and, as much as is in them, compel by persuasion that people, falling down, should worship (cadentes adorent) the idol of falsehood.

(Vers. 8.) And immediately at that very time, Chaldean men came forward and accused the Jews, etc. They envied those whom the king had appointed over the works in Babylon, and they were offended by their foreign worship (cultu) and their rejection of idols; seizing the opportunity, they accuse them before the king. Finally, it follows:

(Vers. 12.) “There are Jewish men whom you have appointed over the works of the province of Babylon: Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego; these men have despised your decree.” And in a way they speak like this: Those whom you preferred to us, and made captives and slaves into princes, these, lifted up in pride, despise your commands, do not worship (colunt) your gods, and do not worship (adorant) the golden statue which you have set up. What we said at the beginning of this vision is proven more clearly here: that Nebuchadnezzar has other gods, and another golden statue which he ordered to be erected for his own worship (cultum sui). For in what follows the king himself says: “You do not worship (colitis) my gods, and you do not worship (adoratis) the golden statue which I have set up?” etc. Others say this is a custom of Holy Scripture, to call one idol in the plural, as is that passage in Exodus about the calf: “These are your gods, O Israel, who brought you out of the land of Egypt” (Exod. XXXII, 4). And in the book of Kings, Jeroboam, setting up a golden calf in Bethel, is said to have made idols (III Reg. XII). On the contrary, many demons are called in the singular number, as in Isaiah: “He bows down, and worships (adorat) it, and making a vow says: You are my god” (Isai. XLIV, 17).

(Vers. 14.) “Prostrate yourselves (prosternite vos), and worship (adorate) the statue which I have made.” Although he had commanded in fury that the youths be brought forward, nevertheless he gives a space for repentance, so that if they should fall down and worship (ceciderint et adoraverint), the prior fault might obtain pardon: but if they should refuse to worship (adorare), the present punishment might be the burning furnace.

(Vers. 15.) “And who is the god who can deliver you from my hand?” etc. Clearly that one whose servant you recently worshiped (adorasti), whom you declared to be truly the God of gods and the Lord of kings.

(Vers. 16.) “Nebuchadnezzar the king, it is not necessary for us to answer you in this matter.” In the Hebrew it does not have “the king,” as in the LXX, lest they should seem to flatter the impious one or to call “king” one who was compelling them to evil deeds. But if anyone insistently reads “king” as well: we will say that they were not provocatively calling the king to the shedding of their own blood, but were rendering to the king the honor due, in such a way that the worship (cultus) of God is not harmed. As for what they say: “It is not necessary for us to answer you in this matter.” The sense is this: you ought not to hear words whose strength and constancy you will already prove by the deeds themselves.

(Vers. 17.) “For behold, our God whom we worship (colimus), is able to deliver us from the burning fiery furnace and to free us from your hands, O king.” From where he thought he could terrify the youths, from there he sees in them the material of fortitude. Nor do they put it off for long, but they promise themselves present help, saying: “For behold, our God whom we worship (colimus), is able to free us both from that burning with which you threaten, and from your hands.”

(Vers. 18.) “But if he will not”: Beautifully, to what they had said—“He is able to deliver us”—they did not add the contrary “if he cannot,” but “if he will not”: so that if they should perish, it would be of God’s will, not of his inability. “Let it be known to you, O king, that we do not worship (colimus) your gods, and we do not worship (adoramus) the golden statue which you have set up.” Whether we choose to read “statue,” as Symmachus, or “golden image,” as the others translated, those who worship (cultores) God ought not to worship (adorare) it. Therefore, judges and princes of the world who worship (adorant) the statues and images of emperors should understand that by doing this they are doing what the three youths, refusing to do, pleased God. And the proper distinction is to be noted: they say that gods are worshiped (coli), an image is adored (adorari)—neither of which befits the servants of God. – Jerome, Commentary on Daniel chapter 3

“Hear the word that the Lord has spoken concerning you, O house of Israel. Thus says the Lord: Do not learn the way of the nations, and do not fear the signs of the heavens, which the nations fear. For the customs of the peoples are vanity.” (Jeremiah 10:1-2)

This is addressed specifically to those who venerate celestial bodies and believe that the signs in the sky—of years, seasons, months, and days—govern humanity and that earthly affairs are determined by heavenly causes. When the Lord says, “The laws or customs of the peoples are vanity,” He shows that all human wisdom is futile and contains no real usefulness.

“For the customs of the peoples are vanity. A tree from the forest is cut down, and it is the work of the hands of a craftsman with an axe. They adorn it with silver and gold; they fasten it with nails and hammers so that it does not fall over. They are like a scarecrow in a cucumber field; they cannot speak. They must be carried, because they cannot walk. Do not be afraid of them, for they can do neither harm nor good.” (Jeremiah 10:3-5)

Here is a description of the idols venerated by the gentiles. A “tree is cut down from the forest,” meaning the material for idols is cheap and corruptible, the work of a craftsman’s hands. Since the craftsman is mortal, the things he fabricates are also mortal. The idol is adorned with silver and gold to deceive the simple with its dazzling appearance. This error has persisted even to our time, where people think religion depends on wealth.

“They fasten it with nails and hammers so that it does not fall over.”

What power do these idols have if they cannot even stand on their own unless fastened with nails and hammers? They are made “in the likeness of a palm tree,” decorated with the beauty of metals and artistic painting, but they lack the ability to produce any fruit. “They do not speak,” for they have no life within them. As it is written, “They have mouths but do not speak; they have ears but do not hear” (Psalm 115:5-6).

“They must be carried.” The one who carries them is stronger than the idols themselves, for he has sense, whereas the idol is merely a lifeless form. Therefore, do not fear them, “for they can do neither harm nor good.” Many of the pagans worship demons to avoid harm or invoke them for benefits, but these idols possess neither power to punish nor to reward.

Whatever we have said about idols can be applied to all doctrines contrary to the truth. For they promise great things, and they fashion an image of vain worship from their own hearts. They boast of grand things and, in order to deceive the simple, they captivate the eyes of all with golden-sounding words and eloquence shining like silver. They are elevated by their inventors, yet they have no usefulness. Their worship belongs specifically to the heathen nations and to those who do not know God.

“Your glory is in truth, and in lies there is disgrace.” Though heretics may appear wise according to worldly wisdom, which will be destroyed, still, among all the kingdoms that tear apart the Church, there is none like You. As divine Scripture says, “I will destroy the wisdom of the wise, and the discernment of the discerning I will thwart” (1 Corinthians 1:19).

Both the wise and the foolish alike are reduced to nothing. Their doctrine, depending on the quality of their intellect, is either lowly and compared to wood, or, for the sake of eloquence, likened to silver.

Therefore, all these [idols] are lies. He is the living God; thus, those idols are dead, being mere fabrications. He is the eternal King, while the shadows of the heretics prevail only for a time but are eventually destroyed over a long period.

“At His indignation, the earth will tremble.”

Those who engage in earthly works and create earthly idols will be shaken. The nations, not the people of the Lord, but the multitude of the Gentiles, cannot withstand His threats.

Every human has been made foolish by their own knowledge, and every craftsman is put to shame by the idols he makes, for the molten image is a lie, and there is no spirit in it. They are worthless, a work deserving of ridicule; in the time of their visitation, they will perish.

“Every craftsman is confounded by his graven image. There is no spirit in them. They are worthless and a work deserving of ridicule.”

Who would not laugh when considering the images of heretics? Either they are crude, made of wood, or constructed with eloquent speech and resemble silver, or they are fabricated from their own imagination and falsely promise the appearance of gold. – Jerome, Commentary on Jeremiah chapter 10, Patrologia Latina, vol. 24, coll. 679-900C.

“You cannot serve God and mammon.” In the Syriac language, riches are called mammon. “You cannot serve God and mammon.” Let the greedy hear this, let him hear that the one who is enrolled by the name of Christian cannot serve Christ and riches at the same time. And yet, he did not say: “he who has riches,” but: “he who serves riches.” For he who is a slave of riches guards his riches, like a slave; but the one who has shaken off the yoke of slavery distributes them, like a master. – Jerome, Commentary on Matthew, book 1, chapter 6.24

Madman, who in the world ever adored the martyrs? Who ever thought man was God? Did not Paul and Barnabas, when the people of Lycaonia thought them to be Jupiter and Mercury, and would have offered sacrifices to them, rend their clothes and declare they were men? Not that they were not better than Jupiter and Mercury, who were but men long ago dead, but because, under the mistaken ideas of the Gentiles, the honour due to God was being paid to them. And we read the same respecting Peter, who, when Cornelius wished to adore him, raised him by the hand, and said, “Stand up, for I also am a man.” – Jerome, Against Vigilantius, chapter 5

Nescu, translated literally, is Kiss. I wished not to give a distasteful rendering, and preferring to follow the sense, gave the word Worship; for those who worship are apt to kiss their hands and to bare their heads, as is to be seen in the case of Job who declares that he has never done either of these things, “If I beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon walking in brightness, and my heart rejoiced in secret and I kissed my hand with my mouth, which is a very great iniquity, and a lie to the most high God.” The Hebrews, according to the peculiarity of their language use this word Kiss for adoration. – Jerome’s Apology for Himself Against the Books of Rufinus, book 1, chapter 19

• Obviously the Hebrew meaning of the word is slightly different than the Greek equivalent proskineo, which means “to prostrate,” but ultimately that’s irrelevant in this discussion, since the Cathodox both prostrate toward images and kiss them. Both kinds of “adoration” are being performed.

1. Now that I have received a letter from you, if I do not answer it I shall be guilty of pride, and if I do I shall be guilty of rashness. For the matters concerning which you ask my opinion are such that they cannot either be spoken of or listened to without profanity. You tell me that Vigilantius (whose very name Wakeful is a contradiction: he ought rather to be described as Sleepy) has again opened his fetid lips and is pouring forth a torrent of filthy venom upon the relics of the holy martyrs; and that he calls us who cherish them “ashmongers” and “idolaters” who pay homage (veneremur) to dead men’s bones. Unhappy wretch! To be wept over by all Christian men, who sees not that in speaking thus he makes himself one with the Samaritans and the Jews who hold dead bodies unclean and regard as defiled even vessels which have been in the same house with them, following the letter that kills and not the spirit that gives life. 2 Corinthians 3:6 We, it is true, refuse to worship (colimus) or adore (adoramus), I say not the relics of the martyrs, but even the sun and moon, the angels and archangels, the Cherubim and Seraphim and every name that is named, not only in this world but also in that which is to come. Ephesians 1:21 For we may not serve (serviamus) the creature rather than the Creator, who is blessed forever. Romans 1:25 Still we honour (honoramus) the relics of the martyrs, that we may adore Him whose martyrs they are. We honour the servants that their honour may be reflected upon their Lord who Himself says:— he that receives you receives me. Matthew 10:40 I ask Vigilantius, Are the relics of Peter and of Paul unclean? Was the body of Moses unclean, of which we are told (according to the correct Hebrew text) that it was buried by the Lord Himself? Deuteronomy 34:6 And do we, every time that we enter the basilicas of apostles and prophets and martyrs, pay homage (veneramur) to the shrines of idols? Are the tapers which burn before their tombs only the tokens of idolatry? I will go farther still and ask a question which will make this theory recoil upon the head of its inventor and which will either kill or cure that frenzied brain of his, so that simple souls shall be no more subverted by his sacrilegious reasonings. Let him answer me this, Was the Lord’s body unclean when it was placed in the sepulchre? And did the angels clothed in white raiment merely watch over a corpse dead and defiled, that ages afterwards this sleepy fellow might indulge in dreams and vomit forth his filthy surfeit, so as, like the persecutor Julian, either to destroy the basilicas of the saints or to convert them into heathen temples?

• Jerome confirms that God forbids prostration before the dead bodies of the saints in the same way he forbids bowing to the sun and moon and angels. Adoring=proskyneo.

2. I am surprised that the reverend bishop in whose diocese he is said to be a presbyter acquiesces in this his mad preaching, and that he does not rather with apostolic rod, nay with a rod of iron, shatter this useless vessel and deliver him for the destruction of the flesh that the spirit may be saved. 1 Corinthians 5:5 He should remember the words that are said: When you saw a thief, then you consented unto him; and hast been partaker with adulterers; and in another place, I will early destroy all the wicked of the land; that I may cut off all wicked doers from the city of the Lord; and again Do not I hate them, O Lord, that hate you? And am not I grieved with those that rise up against you? I hate them with perfect hatred. If the relics of the martyrs are not worthy of honour, how comes it that we read “Precious in the sight of the Lord is the death of his saints?” If dead men’s bones defile those that touch them, how came it that the dead Elisha raised another man also dead, and that life came to this latter from the body of the prophet which according to Vigilantius must have been unclean? In that case every encampment of the host of Israel and the people of God was unclean; for they carried the bodies of Joseph and of the patriarchs with them in the wilderness, and carried their unclean ashes even into the holy land. In that case Joseph, who was a type of our Lord and Saviour, was a wicked man; for he carried up Jacob’s bones with great pomp to Hebron merely to put his unclean father beside his unclean grandfather and great grandfather, that is, one dead body along with others. The wretch’s tongue should be cut out, or he should be put under treatment for insanity. As he does not know how to speak, he should learn to be silent. I have myself before now seen the monster, and have done my best to bind the maniac with texts of scripture, as Hippocrates binds his patients with chains; but he went away, he departed, he escaped, he broke out, and taking refuge between the Adriatic and the Alps of King Cotius declaimed in his turn against me. For all that a fool says must be regarded as mere noise and mouthing.

3. You may perhaps in your secret thoughts find fault with me for thus assailing a man behind his back. I will frankly admit that my indignation overpowers me; I cannot listen with patience to such sacrilegious opinions. – Jerome, Letter CIX/109 (To Riparius), 

1. The world has given birth to many monsters; in Isaiah we read of centaurs and sirens, screech-owls and pelicans. Job, in mystic language, describes Leviathan and Behemoth; Cerberus and the birds of Stymphalus, the Erymanthian boar and the Nemean lion, the Chimæra and the many-headed Hydra, are told of in poetic fables. Virgil describes Cacus. Spain has produced Geryon, with his three bodies. Gaul alone has had no monsters, but has ever been rich in men of courage and great eloquence. All at once Vigilantius, or, more correctly, Dormitantius, has arisen, animated by an unclean spirit, to fight against the Spirit of Christ, and to deny that religious reverence (veneranda) is to be paid to the tombs of the martyrs. Vigils, he says, are to be condemned; Alleluia must never be sung except at Easter; continence is a heresy; chastity a hot-bed of lust. And as Euphorbus is said to have been born again in the person of Pythagoras, so in this fellow the corrupt mind of Jovinianus has arisen; so that in him, no less than in his predecessor, we are bound to meet the snares of the devil. The words may be justly applied to him:“ Seed of evil-doers, prepare thy children for the slaughter because of the sins of thy father.” Jovinianus, condemned by the authority of the Church of Rome, amidst pheasants and swine’s flesh, breathed out, or rather belched out his spirit. And now this tavern-keeper of Calagurris, who, according to the name of his native village is a Quintilian, only dumb instead of eloquent, is mixing water with the wine. According to the trick which he knows of old, he is trying to blend his perfidious poison with the Catholic faith; he assails virginity and hates chastity; he revels with worldlings and declaims against the fasts of the saints; he plays the philosopher over his cups, and soothes himself with the sweet strains of psalmody, while he smacks his lips over his cheese-cakes; nor could he deign to listen to the songs of David and Jeduthun, and Asaph and the sons of Core, except at the banqueting table. This I have poured forth with more grief than amusement, for I cannot restrain myself and turn a deaf ear to the wrongs inflicted on apostles and martyrs.

4. And among his other blasphemies, he says: “What necessity is there for you not only to honor (honorare) with such great honor (honore), but even to adore (adorare) that I-know-not-what, which you worship (colis) by carrying it about in a small vessel?” And again in the same book: “Why, by adoring (adorando) it, do you kiss dust wrapped in a linen cloth?” And in the following passages: “We see something close to the rite of the pagans introduced into the Churches under the pretext of religion; while the sun is still shining, heaps of wax candles are kindled, and everywhere they adore (adorant) some tiny dust or other, wrapped in a precious linen cloth inside a small vessel, kissing it. Men of this kind offer great honor (honorem) to the most blessed martyrs, whom they think are to be enlightened by very cheap little candles—men whom the Lamb, who is in the midst of the throne with all the brightness of His majesty, illuminates.”

5. Madman, who has ever adored (adoravit) the martyrs? Who has ever thought a man was God? Did not Paul and Barnabas, when they were thought by the Lycaonians to be Jupiter and Mercury and the people wanted to offer sacrifices to them, tear their garments and declare that they were men? Not because they were not better than Jupiter and Mercury, who were once dead men, but because, under the error of paganism, the honor (honor) due to God was being deferred to them. We read this also concerning Peter, who lifted up Cornelius with his hand when he desired to adore (adorare) him, and said: “Rise, for I too am a man.” And do you dare to say: “That I-know-not-what, which you worship (colis) by carrying it about in a small vessel?” What that “I-know-not-what” is, I desire to know. Explain more clearly, so that you may blaspheme with total freedom, “some tiny dust or other, wrapped in a precious linen cloth inside a small vessel.” It grieves you that the relics of the martyrs are covered with a precious veil, and not bound together either in rags or sackcloth, or thrown onto a dunghill, so that Vigilantius alone, drunk and sleeping, might be adored (adoretur). Therefore, are we sacrilegious when we enter the basilicas of the Apostles? Was the Emperor Constantius sacrilegious, who transferred the holy relics of Andrew, Luke, and Timothy to Constantinople, in the presence of which demons roar, and the inhabitants of Vigilantius confess that they feel their presence? Is the Augustus Arcadius now to be called sacrilegious, who after a long time transferred the bones of the blessed Samuel from Judea into Thrace? Are all bishops to be judged not only sacrilegious but also foolish, who carried a most cheap thing and dissolved ashes in silk and a golden vessel? Are the peoples of all the Churches fools, who ran to meet the holy relics and received them with such great joy as if they discerned a present and living prophet, so that swarms of peoples were joined together from Palestine all the way to Chalcedon, and resounded with one voice in the praises of Christ? Clearly, they were adoring (adorabant) Samuel, and not Christ, whose levite and prophet Samuel was! You suspect he is dead, and for that reason you blaspheme. Read the Gospel: “The God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, the God of Jacob; He is not the God of the dead, but of the living.” If, therefore, they are alive, they are not shut up in an honorable prison according to you.

7. Moreover, we do not light candles in bright daylight, as you falsely misrepresent, but so that we may temper the darkness of the night with this comfort, and keep watch by the light, lest we, being blind like you, sleep in the darkness. But if some, through the ignorance and simplicity of worldly men or certainly of religious women—of whom we can truly say: “I confess, they have a zeal for God, but not according to knowledge”—do this for the honor (honore) of the Martyrs, what do you lose thereby? Once, the apostles also complained that the ointment was wasted, but they were corrected by the voice of the Lord. For neither did Christ stand in need of ointment, nor do the martyrs need the light of candles; and yet that woman did this in honor (honore) of Christ, and the devotion of her mind is accepted. And whoever light candles have their reward according to their faith, as the Apostle says: “Let every man abound in his own sense.” Do you call men of this kind idolaters? I do not deny that all of us who believe in Christ have come out of the error of idolatry. For we are not born Christians, but reborn. And because we once used to worship (colebamus) idols, ought we now not to worship (colere) God, lest we seem to venerate (venerari) Him with an honor (honore) similar to that given to idols? That was done for idols, and for that reason it must be detested; this is done for martyrs, and for that reason it must be accepted. For even without the relics of the martyrs, throughout all the Churches of the East when the Gospel is to be read, lights are kindled while the sun is already glowing red—not indeed to drive away the darkness, but to demonstrate a sign of joy. Whence also those evangelical virgins always have their lamps burning. And it is said to the apostles: “Let your loins be girt, and lamps burning in your hands.” And concerning John the Baptist: “He was a burning and a shining lamp,” so that under the type of physical light that light may be shown of which we read in the Psalter: “Thy word, O Lord, is a lamp unto my feet, and a light unto my paths.” – Jerome, Against Vigilantius (Adversus Vigilantium)

Augustine (354-430 AD):

Cicero the augur laughs at auguries, and reproves men for regulating the purposes of life by the cries of crows and jackdaws. But it will be said that an academic philosopher, who argues that all things are uncertain, is unworthy to have any authority in these matters. In the second book of his De Natura Deorum, he [Cicero] introduces Lucilius Balbus, who, after showing that superstitions have their origin in physical and philosophical truths, expresses his indignation at the setting up of images and fabulous notions, speaking thus: Do you not therefore see that from true and useful physical discoveries the reason may be drawn away to fabulous and imaginary gods? This gives birth to false opinions and turbulent errors, and superstitions nearly old-wifeish. For both the forms of the gods, and their ages, and clothing, and ornaments, are made familiar to us; their genealogies, too, their marriages, kinships, and all things about them, are debased to the likeness of human weakness. They are even introduced as having perturbed minds; for we have accounts of the lusts, cares, and angers of the gods. Nor, indeed, as the fables go, have the gods been without their wars and battles. And that not only when, as in Homer, some gods on either side have defended two opposing armies, but they have even carried on wars on their own account, as with the Titans or with the Giants. Such things it is quite absurd either to say or to believe: they are utterly frivolous and groundless. Behold, now, what is confessed by those who defend the gods of the nations. Afterwards he [Cicero] goes on to say that some things belong to superstition, but others to religion, which he thinks good to teach according to the Stoics. For not only the philosophers, he says, but also our forefathers, have made a distinction between superstition and religion. For those, he says, who spent whole days in prayer, and offered sacrifice, that their children might outlive them, are called superstitious. Who does not see that he is trying, while he fears the public prejudice, to praise the religion of the ancients, and that he wishes to disjoin it from superstition, but cannot find out how to do so? For if those who prayed and sacrificed all day were called superstitious by the ancients, were those also called so who instituted (what he blames) the images of the gods of diverse age and distinct clothing, and invented the genealogies of gods, their marriages, and kinships? When, therefore, these things are found fault with as superstitious, he implicates in that fault the ancients who instituted and worshipped such images. Nay, he implicates himself, who, with whatever eloquence he may strive to extricate himself and be free, was yet under the necessity of venerating these images; nor dared he so much as whisper in a discourse to the people what in this disputation he plainly sounds forth. Let us Christians, therefore, give thanks to the Lord our God — not to heaven and earth, as that author argues, but to Him who has made heaven and earth; because these superstitions, which that Balbus, like a babbler, scarcely reprehends, He, by the most deep lowliness of Christ, by the preaching of the apostles, by the faith of the martyrs dying for the truth and living with the truth, has overthrown, not only in the hearts of the religious, but even in the temples of the superstitious, by their own free service. – Augustine, City of God, book 4, chapter 30

The same most acute and learned author [Cicero] also says, that those alone seem to him to have perceived what God is, who have believed Him to be the soul of the world, governing it by design and reason. And by this, it appears, that although he did not attain to the truth — for the true God is not a soul, but the maker and author of the soul — yet if he could have been free to go against the prejudices of custom, he could have confessed and counselled others that the one God ought to be worshipped, who governs the world by design and reason; so that on this subject only this point would remain to be debated with him, that he had called Him a soul, and not rather the creator of the soul. He [Cicero] says, also, that the ancient Romans, for more than a hundred and seventy years, worshipped the gods without an image. “And if this custom,” he says, “could have remained till now, the gods would have been more purely worshipped.” In favor of this opinion, he cites as a witness among others the Jewish nation; nor does he hesitate to conclude that passage by saying of those who first consecrated images for the people, that they have both taken away religious fear from their fellow citizens, and increased error, wisely thinking that the gods easily fall into contempt when exhibited under the stolidity of images. But as he does not say they have transmitted error, but that they have increased it, he therefore wishes it to be understood that there was error already when there were no images. Wherefore, when he says they alone have perceived what God is who have believed Him to be the governing soul of the world, and thinks that the rites of religion would have been more purely observed without images, who fails to see how near he has come to the truth? For if he had been able to do anything against so inveterate an error, he would certainly have given it as his opinion both that the one God should be worshipped, and that He should be worshipped without an image; and having so nearly discovered the truth, perhaps he might easily have been put in mind of the mutability of the soul, and might thus have perceived that the true God is that immutable nature which made the soul itself. Since these things are so, whatever ridicule such men have poured in their writings against the plurality of the gods, they have done so rather as compelled by the secret will of God to confess them, than as trying to persuade others. If, therefore, any testimonies are adduced by us from these writings, they are adduced for the confutation of those who are unwilling to consider from how great and malignant a power of the demons the singular sacrifice of the shedding of the most holy blood, and the gift of the imparted Spirit, can set us free. – Augustine, City of God, book 4, chapter 31

You say that your god lies, but that that object that you have made convinces you of the truth. By the fact, however, that it convinces you of the truth, it does not follow that it is superior to you. Even if you say what is false and he what is true, even if you say that it is a god and he a piece of wood, it is not for that reason superior to you. You have no reason, therefore, to worship it, almost as though it were superior to you. You in fact have sensible faculties, whereas he does not. You hear, whereas he does not hear. You see, whereas he does not see. You walk, whereas he does not walk. You live, whereas of him, I cannot even say that he is dead, since he has never been alive. You, therefore, are superior to the image you have made. Well then, worship one who is superior to you, that is, the One who created you! It would be an insult to you if someone considered you as equal to that object you have made. You ask what the one you worship is like? If someone were to say to you out of ill will, “If only you were like that thing there,” you would be beside yourself with rage. And yet you adore what you would abhor to be, and adoring it you become in some way similar to that object, not, of course, changing into wood and ceasing to be a person but rendering your interior person almost similar to the bodily effigy you have made. — Augustine (Newly Discovered Sermons 6.5 – Nuova Biblioteca Agostiniana = Opere di Sant’ Agostino. Rome: Citta Nuova, 1967– NBA 35/1.133.)

The first commandment of the Decalogue is, as God says: “I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery. You shall not have strange gods before me. You shall not make for yourself a carved image, nor the likeness of anything that is in heaven above, nor of anything that moves in the waters under the earth. You shall not adore them, and you shall not serve them” (Exodus 20:2–5). To these words the blessed Augustine adds a very brief summary, saying: “In the first commandment it is forbidden to fashion any likeness of God out of human imagination—not because God has no image, but because no image of Him ought to be worshiped, except that Image which is the same as He is, and not even that in His place, but together with Him.” — Agobard of Lyons, Book on the Images of the Saints, PL 104:199, (820 AD)

• Remember that Augustine combined the 1st and 2nd commandments into one.

18.  As to idols, indeed, who entertains a doubt as to their being wholly devoid of perception? And yet, when they are placed in these temples and set on high upon thrones of honour, that they may be waited upon by suppliants and worshippers praying and offering sacrifices, even these idols, though devoid both of feeling and of life, do, by the mere image of the members and senses of beings endowed with life, so affect weak minds, that they appear to live and breathe, especially under the added influence of the profound veneration with which the multitude freely renders such costly service.

19. To these morbid and pernicious affections of the mind divine Scripture applies a remedy, by repeating, with the impressiveness of wholesome admonition, a familiar fact, in the words, “Eyes have they, but they see not; they have ears, but they hear not,” etc. For these words, by reason of their being so plain, and commending themselves to all people as true, are the more effective in striking salutary shame into those who, when they present divine worship before such images with religious fear, and look upon their likeness to living beings while they are venerating and worshipping them, and utter petitions, offer sacrifices, and perform vows before them as if present, are so completely overcome, that they do not presume to think of them as devoid of perception.

20. The heathen find a plea for their profane rites and their idols in the fact that they interpret with ingenuity what is signified by each of them, but the plea is of no avail. For all this interpretation relates to the creature, not to the Creator, to whom alone is due that religious service which is in the Greek language distinguished by the word λατρεία. Neither do we say that the earth, the seas, the heaven, the sun, the moon, the stars, and any other celestial influences which may be beyond our ken are demons; but since all created things are divided into material and immaterial, the latter of which we also call spiritual, it is manifest that what is done by us under the power of piety and religion proceeds from the faculty of our souls known as the will, which belongs to the spiritual creation, and is therefore to be preferred to all that is material. Whence it is inferred that sacrifice must not be offered to anything material. There remains, therefore, the spiritual part of creation, which is either pious or impious — the pious consisting of men and angels who are righteous, and who duly serve God; the impious consisting of wicked men and angels, whom we also call devils. Now, that sacrifice must not be offered to a spiritual creature, though righteous, is obvious from this consideration, that the more pious and submissive to God any creature is, the less does he presume to aspire to that honour which he knows to be due to God alone. How much worse, therefore, is it to sacrifice to devils, that is, to a wicked spiritual creature, which, dwelling in this comparatively dark heaven nearest to earth, as in the prison assigned to him in the air, is doomed to eternal punishment. Wherefore, even when men say that they are offering sacrifices to the higher celestial powers, which are not devils, and imagine that the only difference between us and them is in a name, because they call them gods and we call them angels, the only beings which really present themselves to these men, who are given over to be the sport of manifold deceptions, are the devils who find delight and, in a sense, nourishment in the errors of mankind. For the holy angels do not approve of any sacrifice except what is offered, agreeably to the teaching of true wisdom and true religion, unto the one true God, whom in holy fellowship they serve. Therefore, as impious presumption, whether in men or in angels, commands or covets the rendering to itself of those honours which belong to God, so, on the other hand, pious humility, whether in men or in holy angels, declines these honours when offered, and declares to whom alone they are due, of which most notable examples are conspicuously set forth in our sacred books. – Augustine, Letter 102, chapters 18-20

75. Do not summon against me professors of the Christian name, who neither know nor give evidence of the power of their profession. Do not hunt up the numbers of ignorant people, who even in the true religion are superstitious, or are so given up to evil passions as to forget what they have promised to God. I know that there are many worshippers (adorers) of tombs and pictures. I know that there are many who drink to great excess over the dead, and who, in the feasts which they make for corpses, bury themselves over the buried, and give to their gluttony and drunkenness the name of religion. I know that there are many who in words have renounced this world, and yet desire to be burdened with all the weight of worldly things, and rejoice in such burdens. Nor is it surprising that among so many multitudes you should find some by condemning whose life you may deceive the unwary and seduce them from Catholic safety; for in your small numbers you are at a loss when called on to show even one out of those whom you call the elect who keeps the precepts, which in your indefensible superstition you profess. How silly those are, how impious, how mischievous, and to what extent they are neglected by most, nearly all of you, I have shown in another volume. 76. My advice to you now is this: that you should at least desist from slandering the Catholic Church, by declaiming against the conduct of men whom the Church herself condemns, seeking daily to correct them as wicked children. – Augustine, On The Morals of the Catholic Church, chapter 34 / paragraphs 75-76

We worship a God who is invisible. He cannot be seen by any bodily eye but is known only to very clean hearts, and few of us have those. This might seem to give pagans an excuse to ask, “Where is their God?” since, unlike us, they can show us their gods, visible to our eyes. This is why the foregoing psalm warned us in advance that the presence of our God is to be discerned in his works, for being enthroned in heaven above, he has done all that he willed in the heavens and on earth. Let the pagans show us their gods, it seems to be saying, for the idols of the Gentiles are fashioned of silver and gold, the work of human hands. We cannot display our God before your eyes, you pagans, though you ought to perceive him through his works; you, on the contrary, can point to the deities you worship. But do not let that lead you astray into empty fantasies. It would do you far more credit to admit you have nothing to show than to prove how blind your hearts are by demonstrating your gods to our bodily eyes. What are you showing us? Only gold and silver.

It is true that the pagans also have bronze idols, and wooden ones, and others of earthenware and all sorts of other similar materials, but the Holy Spirit chose to mention the precious metals only, because when someone begins to be ashamed of what is particularly dear to him, he will turn away much more easily from the veneration of cheaper things. In another scriptural passage the devotees of idols are described as saying to a piece of wood, “You are my father,” and to a stone, “You begot me” (Jer 2:27). But if anyone thinks himself superior because he does not address wood or stone in those terms, but only gold and silver, let him examine the psalm and bend the ear of his heart to its verdict: “The idols of the Gentiles are silver and gold.” Nothing worthless or tawdry was mentioned. To a mind not earthly itself, gold and silver are of course no better than earth, but a more beautiful and shining earth, more solid and durable. Do not try to make your case by pointing out that human hands have added value to it. From that metal which the true God made, you want to make a false god or, rather, a false man, whom you then venerate instead of the true God! If anyone were to mistake it for a real human being and try to make friends with it, such a person would be accounted mad. A likeness of the human mortal shape, with its members disposed in an orderly fashion that imitates the human body, attracts fickle hearts and sweeps them along into gross passion. But if you can indicate the several organs in this copy that bewitches you, O human vanity, show us also how they all work. – Augustine, Exposition 2 of Psalm 113, chapter 1

You say that your god lies, yet the object you have shaped persuades you of the truth. But even though it convinces you of the truth, that does not make it greater than you. Even if you speak falsehood and it seems to speak truth, even if you call it a god while it is only a piece of wood, it is not therefore superior to you; and you have no reason to worship it as if it were above you. You have senses, but it has none: you can hear, but it does not hear; you can see, but it does not see; you walk, but it does not walk; you live, but of it I cannot even say that it is dead, for it has never been alive. You are therefore greater than the image you have made. Worship then the One who is greater than you — the One who created you! It would be an insult to you if someone thought you equal to the thing you yourself have crafted. You ask, “What is He like, this One whom I worship?” If someone maliciously said to you, “May you become like that,” you would be enraged. Yet you worship what you would hate to become — and by worshiping it, you do become in a certain way like that image, not by turning into wood and ceasing to be a man, but by making your inner man resemble that lifeless effigy you have shaped. In truth, God has given you the mind as your eye, but you refuse to see the truth. He has given you the intellect as your ear, but you will not hear justice. As for the sense of smell, if our inner man lacked it, how could the Apostle say, “We are the sweet fragrance of Christ in every place” (2 Corinthians 2:15)?

Since the craftsman is without doubt greater than the object he has fashioned, you can immediately see what kind of gods the pagans worship, and how different is the God whom you worship. You adore the God who makes you, too, into gods; they adore gods of their own making, and by worshiping them they lose the very possibility of becoming divine. By fashioning false gods, they estrange themselves from the true God. For these idols do not impart divinity to their makers — they give only a name that does not correspond to what they truly are. The craftsmen lose what they themselves could become, while unable to give to their handmade gods what those gods can never be. Whoever fashions a false god offends the true God, and in making something that cannot be a god, he places himself beyond the reach of becoming what he otherwise could have been. For indeed, if he willed it, he could become a god — not like the false god he worships, but like those whom the true God, whom he does not worship, makes divine. What then do men desire — to become gods, or to make gods for themselves? They think it a greater power to fabricate gods than to be transformed into gods themselves. Yet even if they could make such gods, is what they fashion — though it bears the name “god” — truly a god? You may indeed bestow upon it the divine name and call it a god, but in truth it is only wood, or stone, or gold, or some such thing. In fact, O impious man, you claim to make a god, but what you make is not that. You can only shape an image and call it a god; but it will never be what you name it — it will remain mere matter, created by the One whom you refuse to invoke. For it was God who created the wood, the stone, the gold, and the silver; and if with that stone created by God you presume to fashion a god, you will neither be able to give it the divinity for which you made it, nor take from it the nature its Creator gave it. — Augustine, Sermon 23B, chapter 3

Well then, what you intended to make, you have not succeeded in making. For if I were to ask you what you meant to create, you would answer, “A god.” Yet the image you have made answers me better than you do. For we can, in a sense, question things such as those you have fashioned — though they have neither soul nor senses, they still present to our eyes a form that, so to speak, declares to our senses what they truly are. For example, you have made a god of wood. But clearly, if it is a god, it cannot be a piece of wood; and if it is a piece of wood, it cannot possibly be a god. Yet you insist that what you have made is indeed a god. Allow me then, setting aside the block of wood that you are, to question the wood that you have worked — and do not imagine that, because I direct my questions to that piece of wood (for what harm is there if I interrogate it?), I have somehow become wooden myself. Listen carefully: in speaking to it, I do not address a soul, but I attend to the form that appears before my eyes. My sight rests upon the shape of that piece of wood and upon the material of which it is made; and lest my mortal eye deceive me, I test it also with my sense of touch. And if you still think this examination insufficient, I could take an axe and put your god to the proof — that is, the piece of wood created by my God. Through all these tests and inquiries, your image, though it cannot speak, gives its answer: it is a piece of wood. And in this, its silent testimony is more trustworthy than your own. — Augustine, Sermon 23B, chapter 4

Truly, one must pity these men who cannot distinguish themselves from their statues. And as for those who can, they are not to be praised merely for that — unless we are to praise a man simply for knowing the difference between himself and a stone. For what kind of man would he be who thought himself equal to a stone? And yet, it would almost be better if he stopped there! Instead, he thinks himself greater than the stone. To become like a stone, or to desire such likeness, is impossible; for no matter how much a man strives to conform himself to the object he has made, he can never erase within himself the work of God. But suppose a man were to think himself like a statue, or truly believe such a thing. I say of him first that he offends himself. Yet perhaps he cares little for the insult done to himself — and rightly so, for the offense done to such a man is of little account. But here is something that ought to strike him with fear: he offends God. By wrongly comparing himself to a stone, he commits sacrilege against the Creator, for man was made in the image of God (Genesis 1:27). Now, if you were to insult the image of the emperor, you would be guilty of sacrilege — so the public laws declare. What then shall you be when you profane the image of God? Which is worse — to hurl a stone against the image of a man, or to regard a stone as the image of God? Let us therefore leave aside such people — dead and buried as they are — for although it is not absolutely impossible to bring them back to life, it is beyond our power. Yet we must not despair of them, for even though we cannot make them live, God is powerful enough to raise up from these very stones children to Abraham (Matthew 3:9). — Augustine, Sermon 23B, chapter 7

Moreover, we must consider ourselves distinct even from the so-called deities said to dwell within those stones or statues of wood, gold, and silver. For some, seeking to excuse themselves in some fashion, say: “We too know that the idols are vain things, but we do not worship the image itself.” And if you ask them what, then, they worship, they answer: “The divinities that dwell within the image. We bow before the visible form, but we adore the invisible.” But what are these invisible divinities? Let us hear it from our God, who speaks through the prophet: “All the gods of the nations are demons, but the Lord made the heavens” (Psalm 96:5). The demons are not worthy to dwell there. The prophet mocks the demons in one way, and the idols in another. How does he mock the idols? “The statues of the nations are silver and gold” (Psalm 115:4). He does not mention stone or wood, but chooses as the object of ridicule what men esteem most, what they consider precious — the very materials they prize. Thus they are silver and gold, yet still “the work of human hands” (Psalm 115:4). And in what sense are they the work of man? Was it man who made them to be gold or silver? No — that was the work of God. What then did man do? He made them have eyes but not see (Psalm 115:5). Such is the work of man when he fashions his god — a work he himself would not wish to be done to him by the God who made him. He has made a blind god, though he would never wish to have been created blind by God. What more need be said? The psalmist names gold and silver, the most precious of metals, and selects them precisely to mock their divinities, according to what men themselves value most. But is there truly any difference in what he mocks? There is indeed a difference between gold and wood, for gold is more precious than wood; yet as to seeing or not seeing, having eyes or lacking them, the two materials do not differ in the least. Different in use and brightness, they are equal in blindness. — Augustine, Sermon 23B, chapter 8

15. What did Simon want, but to be admired for miracles, to exalt himself in pride? That, you see, was what drove him to imagine that the gift of the Holy Spirit could be bought with money. As against such pride the apostle, abiding in the South, fervent in spirit (Acts 18:25), shining brightly in his good sense, says in humility, Neither the one who plants is anything, nor the one who waters; but the one who gives the growth, God; because he had just said, I planted, Apollo watered, but God gave the growth (1 Cor 3:7.6). And again, Was Paul crucified for you, or were you baptized in the name of Paul? (1 Cor 1:13). How he utterly rejects being worshiped instead of Christ, how jealous he is for the bridegroom, and refuses to parade himself as the bridegroom to any soul bent on fornication!

So just as those saints, within their limits—because it is only after the resurrection of the body that they will be as perfect as angels—but still, just as they too, within their limits scorned the honor which people were paying them as though it were their due, because they wished him alone to be worshiped and all hearts to be converted to him alone, in whom they too made their boast as truly good and faithful slaves (Mt 25:21), as sons, such too are the holy angels. Because although still only human beings living in the flesh and placed in the midst of so many trials and temptations, they scorned the honor which was being conferred on them as conducive to pride, so that he alone might be honored in all things, who alone has ever been honored without any risk to the one doing the honors. Where, after all, do they place themselves, so that he may be honored? How do they abase themselves? Isn’t it a great thing, evidently, to plant and to water? But neither the one who plants is anything, nor the one who waters. How very anxious and concerned he was! He doesn’t claim to contribute anything to the salvation of those whom he was longing to build up in Christ. So if men still living in the flesh act like that, how much more the martyrs and the angels! The more holy, you see, their quality of life, the more they love God’s glory. Because we too shall be like the angels, but after the resurrection. That’s what the Lord said: They will be equal to the angels of God (Lk 20:36).

16. So come back with me to what I had started to tell you about, and receive some salutary instruction on why you should have time only for God. So that angel was showing wonderful and mystical visions in the Apocalypse to the apostle John, slave of Christ, son of mother Church and counted among the sons of God. But he was confused in one of the visions, and fell down, as I had begun to say, at the angel’s feet. The angel, though, wouldn’t accept a man showing him the honor which was due to God alone, and said to him, “Get up; what are you doing? Venerate God. For I too am your fellow slave and the fellow of your brethren (Rv 19:10; 22:9).

Why have I said this? Please consider carefully the chief point I’m making. We had started to deal with the apparently better educated pagans—because the less educated are the ones who do the things about which these do not wish to be taken to task—so with the better educated ones, since they say to us, “You people also have your adorers of columns, and sometimes even of pictures.” And would to God that we didn’t have them, and may the Lord grant that we don’t go on having them! But all the same, this is not what the Church teaches you. I mean, which priest of theirs ever climbed into a pulpit and from there commanded the people not to adore idols, in the way that we, in Christ, publicly preach against the adoration of columns or of the stones of buildings in holy places, or even of pictures? On the contrary indeed, it was their very priests who used to turn to the idols and offer them victims for their congregations, and would still like to do so now.

17. “We,” they say, “don’t adore images, but what is signified by the image.” I ask what the images signify, I ask what the image of the sun signifies; nothing else but the sun, surely? For yes, perhaps the explanations of other images convey deeper, more hidden meanings. For the time being let’s leave these, and put them on one side to come back to shortly. The image of the sun, certainly, can only signify the sun, and that of the moon the moon, and that of Tellus the earth. So if they don’t adore what they see in the image, but what the image signifies, why, when they have the things signified by these images so familiarly before their very eyes, do they offer adoration to their images instead of directly to them? I mean, if what is signified couldn’t be seen, it would make sense to offer adoration to the sign for the thing signified. But since they can see the sun, which is signified by the image of the sun, why do they turn their backs to what is signified, and their faces to the sign it is signified by?

You see, if they didn’t make images for the things that can be seen, and only made them for things that can’t be seen, they could deceive the less wide awake among us, and say, “Look, we worship the sun. But because we can see him, we haven’t set up any image to him. It’s the same with the moon and the stars; as we see them, so we worship them. We haven’t made any images of them, nor do we have any. It would be silly, after all, to place a visible sign in a closed temple for a thing which can be seen and worshiped in the open sky. But when we worship Mind or Wit or Soul or Virtue or Justice—these now are all invisible—we set up their visible images, which we can see and adore, and thus venerate in our thoughts the invisible realities.” As it is, however, they can now be openly convicted of being devoted to the actual images, and not to what the images signify, seeing that they have made images even of visible objects, plain for the eyes of all to see. The sun has an image, though they would very properly be blamed by true piety and religion if they offered it adoration in the sky. What’s more, they have come to such a pitch of mindless folly, that they turn their backs to the sun, and their faces to its image.”

How can you expect him to hear you, when you abandon him, and turn to some false and totally misleading image of him? It’s as if you went to the house of some landowner to beg for something, and he was standing in his courtyard, while you turned your back to him and faced his portrait; and if you not only poured out your heart to a picture and not to a man, but did so in the presence of the man portrayed in the picture, wouldn’t he assume you were making fun of him, or put you down as crazy, and in any case have you thrown out of his house?” Nothing could be more like such folly than what these people do, even if the sun were rightly to be venerated. That such things, though, are not be venerated I will explain in the Lord’s name, if he allows me the time and gives me the capacity. But now what I am talking about is how these people are caught out in their very activities.

“You’ve built a temple to the moon, you have set up in it an image to her. The moon rises every day, there are scarcely two, or perhaps three days in a month when she cannot be seen. Venerate her, if she must be venerated, if you have come to this pitch of impropriety that you want to venerate a visible creature as a god, though manifestly the invisible creation excels it in power, and not even that, but only the creator, is to be venerated as God. But look, the things you worship are there before your eyes, whether sun or moon or stars or earth; so why go looking for their images, when they are there present for you to venerate? It can only be because human beings are devoted to what they have made with their own hands, forgetful of the one by whose hands they were made themselves.”

21. So the apostle Paul warns us in advance about all this in his letter: Take care, he says, that nobody deceives you through philosophy and vain deceit, according to the elements of this world (Col 2:8). He was referring, you see, to the people who give an apparently sensible explanation of idols. That’s why, after saying through philosophy, he said in the same passage, according to the elements of this world, warning us to beware, not of any old worshipers of idols, but of the apparently more learned interpreters of signs.

24. “When I worship Mercury,” he says, “I’m worshiping wit; wit cannot be seen; it’s something invisible.” We too unreservedly grant that wit is some thing invisible, and that it is invisible in such a way, and is such a kind of reality, that it is better than heaven, than earth, than sea and all those things that can be seen. An invisible substance, that is to say, in that it is a kind of life, is better than any and every visible substance, because everything visible is a body. And certainly wit is a superior kind of reality. – Augustine, Sermon 198, chapters 16-2

They have mouths, but will never speak; they have eyes, but will not see; ears, but will hear nothing; nostrils, but no sense of smell; hands that will never handle anything; and feet that will never walk; nor will they produce any sound from their throats. The craftsman who fashioned them is better than they are, because he had the power to make them by moving his limbs and plying his trade; yet you would be ashamed to worship the craftsman, wouldn’t you? You yourself are better than they, for although you did not make them, you can do things they cannot do. Even an animal is better, for notice the last point added by the psalm: the idols will not produce any sound from their throats. 

But then it added, Nor will they produce any sound from their throats, and thereby alerted the reader or hearer, who would wonder about the addition and so discover that we are being told of the superiority not of humans only, but even of beasts, to pagan idols. If pagans find it shameful to worship an animal, which God has endowed with the power to see, hear, smell, handle objects, walk, and produce sounds from its throat, they must see how much more shameful it is to worship an idol which is dumb and lifeless. It has been given fake human organs only so that a soul dominated by sensuality may feel affection for a thing that appears living and animated, since the worshipper is aware of similar organs as living and animated in himself. Mice and snakes and other live creatures are much better judges of pagan idols, we might say, for they take no notice of the human shape of an object in which they detect no human life. They often build their nests in the idols, and unless driven away by human activity they seek no more secure habitat. But along comes a human being, moving to frighten the animal away from his god; then he worships as powerful an object impotent to move itself, from which the worshipper had to scare off an animal that was better than the idol. He has frightened a seeing creature away from a blind thing, a hearing creature from a deaf thing, a walking animal from an immobile image, a sentient creature from something without feeling, and a living animal from a dead object—indeed, from one worse than dead, for although a corpse is obviously not alive, it is equally obvious that it has been alive. A corpse has more dignity, therefore, than a god who is not alive and never has been. – Augustine, Exposition 2 of Psalm 113, chapter 2

Can anything be more glaringly plain, my dearest brothers and sisters? Could anything stand out more clearly? Would any child, on being questioned, not reply that it is quite certain that pagan idols have mouths, but will never speak; eyes, but will not see, and so on, as God’s word has spelled it out? Why, then, does the Holy Spirit go to so much trouble to make the point and drive it home to us in several passages of the scriptures, as though we were ignorant, as though all this were not plain and well known to everyone? The reason, I think, is this. We have become accustomed to observing limbs and organs naturally present and alive in animals, and to feeling them alive in ourselves. Now when a humanoid form is skillfully wrought to serve as some sign (as the idolaters claim) and placed on a raised platform, and when the crowd begins to adore it and pay it homage, it engenders in each one of them a most foul misapprehension. The worshippers detect no signs of life or movement in the artifact, but they think the god is hiding. They are misled by the idol’s appearance and swayed by the pressure of so-called wise teachers and compliant crowds. They cannot believe that an image which looks so much like a human body has no living tenant. – Augustine, Exposition 2 of Psalm 113, chapter 3

There are people who declare, “I worship neither an idol nor a demon, but I regard the image as a physical sign of what I ought to worship.” Such people think themselves practitioners of a purer religion.… When the worshippers begin to be embarrassed by the charge that they are adoring material things like earth, sea, air, and fire—objects that are readily available for our use—they have the temerity to reply that they are not paying cult to the physical objects themselves but to the deities who preside over and rule them. (Less embarrassment is felt in the case of objects in the sky, since we cannot handle these, or even make contact with them, except visually.) The apostle pronounces both condemnation and punishment in a single sentence: They changed the truth of God into a lie, and they worshipped and served a creature rather than the creator, who is blessed for ever (Rom 1 :25). In the first half of this sentence he condemned idols and in the second half the interpretations imposed on them. By giving to images made by a craftsman the names of things fashioned by God they change God’s truth into a lie; by paying divine honors to the things signified they are serving a creature rather than the creator, who is blessed for ever. – Augustine, Exposition 2 of Psalm 113, chapter 4

Does anyone worship or pray with his eyes fixed on the image, without being persuaded that the image is hearing his petition and without hoping that it will give him what he wants? Probably not. So thoroughly entangled do people become in such superstitions that they often turn their backs on the real sun and pour out their prayers to the statue they call Sun; or again, while the sound of the sea is battering them from behind they batter the statue of Neptune with their sighs as though it were conscious, that statue which they venerate as representative of the actual sea. What causes this error—almost forces the illusion on them, in fact—is the human likeness with all its bodily parts. The minds of the worshippers are accustomed to living with their own bodily senses, and so they judge that a body very similar to their own is more likely to be responsive than the sun’s orb. or the wide waves, or any other object clearly not built on the same plane as the living creatures they are used to seeing.

Weak, carnal human beings can all too easily be trapped by this illusion, but God’s scriptures sing a different song to warn us against it, nudging and arousing the minds of men and women by restating to them what they already know so well. The idols of the Gentiles are fashioned of silver and gold, it tells us. But God made silver and gold, didn’t he? Yes, but the idols are the work of human hands: people are venerating what they have made themselves out of gold and silver. – Augustine, Exposition 2 of Psalm 113, chapter 5

It may be objected that we ourselves have many vessels and other accessories made of similar metals, which we use in the celebration of the sacraments. They are consecrated to divine service and are called holy in honor of him who is worshipped through their use for our salvation. Such vessels and implements are obviously the work of human hands: what else could they be? But do they have mouths that will never speak, or eyes that will never see? And does the fact that we make use of them to offer our supplications to God mean that we are begging anything from them? Of course not.

The principal cause of insane, blasphemous idolatry is this: a form resembling that of a living person—a form that by its lifelike appearance seems to demand worship—is more powerfully persuasive to the emotions of its wretched suppliants than the plain fact that it is not alive and ought to be scorned by anyone who is. The evidence of mouths, eyes, ears, nostrils, hands, and feet in the idols has more power to lead an unhappy soul astray than the evident inability on their part to speak, see, hear, smell, handle things, or walk has power to bring such a soul back to the truth. – Augustine, Exposition 2 of Psalm 113, chapter 6 (MPL 37. 1484)

The inevitable result is the deterioration the psalm goes on to describe: “May those who fashion them become like them, and all who put their trust in them.” Let people with open and seeing eyes gaze at images that neither see nor live, and let their minds become closed and dead as they adore. – Augustine, Exposition 2 of Psalm 113, chapter 7 (MPL 37. 1485)

But the house of Israel has hoped in the Lord, for if hope is seen, it is hope no longer, for when someone sees what he hopes for, why should he hope for it? But if we hope for what we do not see, we wait for it in patience. (Rom 8:24-25) To ensure that such patience holds out to the end, the Lord is their helper and defender. – Augustine, Exposition 2 of Psalm 113, chapter 8

As if there could be anything more wretched than mankind tyrannized over by the work of his own hands, since man, by worshipping the works of his own hands, may more easily cease to be man, than the works of his hands can, through his worship of them, become gods. For it can sooner happen that man, who has received an honorable position, may, through lack of understanding, become comparable to the beasts, than that the works of man may become preferable to the work of God, made in His own image, that is, to man himself. Wherefore deservedly is man left to fall away from Him who made Him, when he prefers to himself that which he himself has made. – Augustine, City of God, book 8, chapter 23

For that which the prevalence of error instituted, the way of truth took away; that which incredulity instituted, faith took away; that which aversion from divine worship and service instituted, conversion to the one true and holy God took away. Nor was this the case only in Egypt, for which country alone the spirit of the demons lamented in Hermes, but in all the earth, which sings to the Lord a new song, as the truly holy and truly prophetic Scriptures have predicted, in which it is written, “Sing unto the Lord a new song; sing unto the Lord, all the earth” (Psalm 96:1). For the title of this psalm is, “When the house was built after the captivity” (Psalm 96:1). For a house is being built to the Lord in all the earth, even the city of God, which is the holy Church, after that captivity in which demons held captive those men who, through faith in God, became living stones in the house. For although man made gods, it did not follow that he who made them was not held captive by them, when, by worshipping them, he was drawn into fellowship with them—into the fellowship not of stolid idols, but of cunning demons; for what are idols but what they are represented to be in the same scriptures, “They have eyes, but they do not see” (Psalm 115:5), and, though artistically fashioned, are still without life and sensation? But unclean spirits, associated through that wicked art with these same idols, have miserably taken captive the souls of their worshippers, by bringing them down into fellowship with themselves. Whence the apostle says, “We know that an idol is nothing, but those things which the Gentiles sacrifice they sacrifice to demons, and not to God; and I would not ye should have fellowship with demons” (1 Corinthians 10:19–20). After this captivity, therefore, in which men were held by malign demons, the house of God is being built in all the earth; whence the title of that psalm in which it is said, “Sing unto the Lord a new song; sing unto the Lord, all the earth. Sing unto the Lord, bless His name; declare well His salvation from day to day. Declare His glory among the nations, among all people His wonderful things. For great is the Lord, and much to be praised: He is terrible above all gods. For all the gods of the nations are demons: but the Lord made the heavens” (Psalm 96:1–5). Wherefore he who sorrowed because a time was coming when the worship of idols should be abolished, and the domination of the demons over those who worshipped them, wished, under the influence of a demon, that that captivity should always continue, at the cessation of which that psalm celebrates the building of the house of the Lord in all the earth. – Augustine, City of God, book 8, chapter 24

But, nevertheless, we do not build temples, and ordain priests, rites, and sacrifices for these same martyrs; for they are not our gods, but their God is our God. Certainly we honor their reliquaries, as the memorials of holy men of God who strove for the truth even to the death of their bodies, that the true religion might be made known, and false and fictitious religions exposed. For if there were some before them who thought that these religions were really false and fictitious, they were afraid to give expression to their convictions. But who ever heard a priest of the faithful, standing at an altar built for the honor and worship of God over the holy body of some martyr, say in the prayers, I offer to you a sacrifice, O Peter, or O Paul, or O Cyprian? For it is to God that sacrifices are offered at their tombs — the God who made them both men and martyrs. – Augustine, City of God, book 8, chapter 27

• This refutes both the Catholics who offer themselves as sacrifices to Mary and the Orthodox who offer bread in Mary’s name.

Let us return to that question about Saint Mary. Behold, He is touched by the disciples: Feel and see, because a spirit does not have bones and flesh, as you see that I have. He is touched by doubting Thomas; he exclaims: My Lord and my God! And to him the Lord says: Because you have seen, you have believed; blessed are those who have not seen, and believe. To whom you announce me, they surpass your faith. You announce what you have seen, you announce what you have touched, you announce what you have hardly believed by seeing and touching; and yet someone will believe you who has neither seen nor touched. You see me, and you do not believe me: you touch me, and you hardly believe me; another hears you, and believes in me. But you ask: “Why is it that Thomas is allowed to touch, and Mary is told: Do not touch me?” Here He Himself said the reason: For I have not yet ascended to the Father. What does this mean? You are here on earth, and you forbid yourself to be touched: when you ascend, who touches you? Situated on earth you repel a nearby hand. Here we can very elegantly surmise, and say: The Lord rightly kept His touch for the unbelievers; He forbids her to touch, because she had already believed. For what need was there to touch and seek, whom she had recognized by hearing? But yet He did not keep silent, afterward He stated the reason. Do not touch me. Why? For I have not yet ascended to my Father: touch me when ascending to the Father. What does it mean, touch me when ascending to the Father? Touch the one equal to the Father. What does it mean, touch the one equal to the Father? Touch God, that is, believe in God. It is easy what you see: the form of a servant is assumed for your sake, it is the garment of God; it is not great to see the flesh. The Jews saw, who killed Him; the Gentiles did not see, and believed. Therefore, He says, just as you see me, in bodily limbs, the appearance you know, just as you see, do not touch me: that is, do not remain there, do not intend only up to there, do not let your faith end here. Indeed, I want you to believe that I am a man, but do not stay there; extend the hand of faith, do not remain there.

Do not touch in the way that the heretic Photinus did: he said that Christ was a man, nothing more; therefore he did not grasp, did not understand, did not touch. The Word was made flesh and dwelt among us. That she might not think Christ to be just a man: “Do not touch me this way: my garment is before you; keep what is done in heaven, extend the hand of your heart; and then you touch me when I ascend to the Father.” Those who confessed this way have touched: He ascended to heaven, sits at the right hand of the Father. Behold, this is how the Church touches, whose figure Mary bore. Let us touch Christ, let us touch. To believe is to touch. Do not extend your hand only to the man; say what Peter said: You are the Christ, the Son of the living God. Therefore do not see Christ as only a man; because if you touch as the heretic said, you will be like Photinus. But again, do not avoid the man-Christ, but do not remain there. I do not say to turn away; what do I say? Do not remain there: he does not reach the mansion who wants to remain on the way. Rise, walk: man-Christ is your way, God-Christ is your homeland. Our homeland, truth and life; our way, the Word was made flesh and dwelt among us. We were lazy to walk, the way came to us; because the way came to us, let us walk. Man-Christ is our way: let us not abandon the way, to reach the only begotten Son of God, equal to the Father, transcending all creation, coeternal with the Father, without day, the day, the creator of faith. For this reason let us walk, that we may touch this. – Augustine, Sermon 375/C (Treatise on the Fifth Day of Holy Easter)

So God puts everything under man, man under himself. You want everything God has made to be under you, see to it you yourself are under God. It’s the last word in impudence for you to require the lower creation to be beneath you, when you won’t even acknowledge him who created you to be your superior. God, then, so arranged what he created that he placed his image beneath himself and everything else under that. Accept him, and you will trample on man. Don’t despise him, and then let anyone who likes to despise you; what harm can he do you, after all, by despising you, since God does not despise you? He laughs at the fellow who despises you, because he himself honors you with a crown. “But he despises me.” Christ was despised. He to whom you have said “In you has my soul put its trust” (Psalm 57:1) came here to be despised for your sake, and as one despised he redeemed you. You wouldn’t have been redeemed if he hadn’t been despised. And how did he come to be despised? By putting on the clothes of a slave, your form. As one thing he was hidden, as another he showed up. He was hidden as God, he showed up as man. He was despised as man, and glorified by God. Nothing therefore that people value so highly here below, nothing did he who made himself the way for us wish to have, though in fact he had everything. His were heaven and earth, by him heaven and earth were made, in heaven and above the heavens he was served by angels, he put demons to flight, he drove out fevers, he opened the ears of the deaf and the eyes of the blind, he controlled the sea, the winds and the storms, he raised the dead. He had the power to do so much, and so much was the one he made able to do against him. The creator of man was subject to man because he showed himself as a man, the liberator of man. He was subject to man, but in the form of man, hidden as God, showing himself as man, despised as man, discovered as God, only discovered, however, because previously despised. For you see, he wasn’t prepared to give you glory until he had first taught you humility. – Augustine, Sermon 20 A, chapter 3-4

“Their idols are silver and gold, the work of human hands.
They have mouths, but do not speak; eyes, but do not see.
They have ears, but do not hear; noses, but do not smell.
They have hands, but do not feel; feet, but do not walk;
and they do not make a sound in their throat.
Those who make them become like them;
so do all who trust in them.”

The Truth revealed himself in the form of a servant, but delayed his self-revelation in the form of God. Speaking still in the form of a servant he made this promise to his servants, “Whoever loves me will be loved by my Father, and I will love him, and will show myself to him” (Jn 14:21). To those who could already see him, he promised to show himself. What were they looking at? What was he promising? They were looking at the form of a servant, but he was promising them the form of God. “I will show myself to you,” he said. To this glory he is leading his kingdom, the kingdom that is being gathered to him now, as this world goes on its way. It is being led to a vision unutterable, of which unbelievers will not be found worthy. Remember too that the servant-form in which he was present during his life on earth was seen also by unbelievers: those who believed saw it, but those who killed him saw it too. You need not rate too high the privilege of seeing that servile form: his friends saw it and his foes saw it; some who saw it slew him, others who did not see it have believed. Here in his humble lifetime his servant-form was seen by the good and the wicked, and on judgment-day too both good and wicked will see it. This we know, for as the Lord was borne up to heaven before the gaze of his disciples, a prophecy was trumpeted by angelic voices: Why stand here gazing up to heaven, men of Galilee? This Jesus will come again, even as you have seen him go. (Acts 1:11) “Even as you have seen him,” notice: even as you have seen him, in the same form. Elsewhere it was prophesied of the wicked, They will gaze on him whom they pierced (Zech 12:10; Jn 19:37). They will see him coming as judge whom they mocked when he was judged.

On judgment day his servile form will be plainly seen by just and unjust, by the good and the wicked, by believers and unbelievers alike. What is it, then, that the wicked will not see? Something there must be. While of them it was said. They will gaze on him whom they pierced, of these same people it was also said, Away with the impious, he shall not see the glory of the Lord (Is 26: 10, LXX). What can it mean, brothers and sisters? Let us puzzle it out, let us try to learn. A wicked person will be awakened to see something, yet this wicked person will be driven away, prevented from seeing something else. We have explained already what he or she will see: that form of which the angels prophesied that he will come again even as you have seen him. Then what will the wicked be forbidden to see? That of which the Lord promised, “I will show myself.” What does that word, “myself,” point to? Not the form of a servant. What is myself, then? The form of God, in which he deemed it no robbery to be God’s equal. What does this myself pledge to us? Dearly beloved, we are children of God already, but what we shall be has not yet appeared. We know that when he appears, we shall be like him, because we shall see him as he is ( 1 Jn 3:2). The glory of God is light beyond all telling, a fountain of light never dimmed, truth that never fails, Wisdom that while abiding in herself renews all things. This is the very substance of God. The wicked must therefore be banished, forbidden to see this holy magnificence of God; it is written, “Blessed are the pure of heart, for they shall see God” (Mt 5:8). – Augustine, Exposition of Psalm 109, chapter 12

They that have done well will go to live with the angels of God; they that have done evil, to be tormented with the devil and his angels. And the form of a servant will pass away. For to this end He had manifested Himself, that He might execute judgment. After the judgment, He shall go hence, will lead with Him the body of which He is the head, and deliver up the kingdom of God. Then will openly be seen that form of God which could not be seen by the wicked, to whose vision the form of a servant must be shown. He says also in another place on this wise: “These shall go away into everlasting burning” (speaking of certain on the left), “but the just into life eternal;” of which life He says in another place: “And this is eternal life, that they may know Thee the one true God, and Jesus Christ whom Thou hast sent.” Then will He be there manifested, “who, being in the form of God, thought it not robbery to be equal with God.” Then He will manifest Himself, as He has promised to manifest Himself to them that love Him. – Augustine, Tractates on John 19

The Lord Christ, in coming into this mortal life, did not manifest His glory, but veiled it in mortal flesh. He appeared like the pillar of cloud in the desert. But when He comes at the end of the world, when all visible joys shall be taken away, then the Lord, no longer hidden under a human form, will shine in His glory and splendor like a pillar of fire. – Augustine, Selected Easter Sermons, Sermon 1 (On the Paschal Candle—Easter Eve), chapter 2

Consider how Mary beheld the Lord in the flesh and listened to the Lord in the flesh, “as through a veil,” as the Epistle to the Hebrews expresses it. But there will be no veil when we behold Him face to face. – Augustine, Selected Easter Sermons, Sermon 17 (On the Alleluia —during Eastertime), chapter 6

11. Seek in the Father and Son a separation, you find none; no, not if you have mounted high; no, not even if you have reached something above your mind. For if you turn about among the things which your wandering mind makes for itself, you talk with your own imaginations, not with the Word of God; your own imaginations deceive you. Mount also beyond the body, and understand the mind; mount also beyond the mind, and understand God. You reach not unto God, unless you have passed beyond the mind; how much less you reach unto God, if you have tarried in the flesh! They who think of the flesh, how far are they from understanding what God is! – since they would not be there even if they knew the mind. Man recedes far from God when his thoughts are of the flesh; and there is a great difference between flesh and mind, yet a greater between mind and God. If you are occupied with the mind, you are in the midway: if you direct your attention beneath, there is the body; if above, there is God. Lift yourself up from the body, pass beyond even yourself. For observe what said the psalm, and you are admonished how God must be thought of: “My tears,” it says, “were made to me my bread day and night, when it was said to me daily, Where is your God?” As the pagans may say, “Behold our gods, where is your God?” They indeed show us what is seen; we worship what is not seen. And to whom can we show? To a man who has not sight with which to see? For anyhow, if they see their gods with their eyes, we too have other eyes with which to see our God: for “blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God.” Therefore, when he had said that he was troubled, when it was daily said to him, “Where is your God?” “these things I remembered,” says he, “because it is daily said to me, Where is your God?” And as if wishing to lay hold of his God, “These things,” says he, “I remembered, and poured out my soul above me.” Therefore, that I might reach unto my God, of whom it was said to me, “Where is your God? I poured out my soul,” not over my flesh, but “above me;” I transcended myself, that I might reach unto Him: for He is above me who made me; none reaches to Him but he that passes beyond himself.

12. Consider the body: it is mortal, earthy, weak, corruptible; away with it. Yes, perhaps you say, but the body is temporal. Think then of other bodies, the heavenly; they are greater, better, more magnificent. Look at them, moreover, attentively. They roll from east to west, they stand not; they are seen with the eyes, not only by man, but even by the beast of the field. Pass beyond them too. And how, say you, pass beyond the heavenly bodies, seeing that I walk on the earth? Not in the flesh do you pass beyond them, but in the mind. Away with them too: though they shine ever so much, they are bodies; though they glitter from heaven, they are bodies. Come, now that perhaps you think you have not where to go, after considering all these. And where am I to go, say you, beyond the heavenly bodies; and what am I to pass beyond with the mind? Have you considered all these? I have, say you. By what means have you considered them? Let the being that considers appear in person. The being that considers all these, that discriminates, distinguishes, and in a manner weighs them in the balance of wisdom, is really the mind. Doubtless, then, better is the mind with which you have contemplated all these things, than these things which you have contemplated. This mind, then, is a spirit, not a body. Pass beyond it too. And that you may see where you are to pass beyond, compare that mind itself, in the first place, with the flesh. Heaven forbid that you should deign so to compare it! Compare it with the brightness of the sun, of the moon, and of the stars; the brightness of the mind is greater. Observe, first, the swiftness of the mind; see whether the scintillation of the thinking mind be not more impetuous than the brilliance of the shining sun. With the mind you see the sun rising. How slow is its motion compared with your mind! What the sun is about to do, you can think in a trice. It is about to come from the east to the west; tomorrow rises from another quarter. Where your thought has done this, the sun still lags behind, and you have traversed the whole journey. A great thing, therefore, is the mind. But how do I say is? Pass beyond it also. For the mind, notwithstanding it be better than every kind of body, is itself changeable. Now it knows, now knows not; now forgets, now remembers; now wills, now wills not; now errs, now is right. Pass therefore beyond all changeableness; not only beyond all that is seen, but also beyond all that changes. For you have passed beyond the flesh which is seen; beyond heaven, the sun, moon, and stars, which are seen. Pass, too, beyond all that changes. For when you had done with those things that are seen, and had come to your mind, there you did find the changeableness of your mind. Is God at all changeable? Pass then, beyond even your mind. Pour out your soul “above you,” that you may reach unto God, of whom it is said to you, “Where is your God?” – Augustine, Tractate 22, chapters 11-13

“In the beginning God created heaven and earth.” See, the works of His hand are visible, they lie before our eyes to our great delight. The work is manifest, but the Maker is hidden, so that confronted by the evidence of His power we may love the unseen Power Himself. Thus when we behold the world and give our love to God, surely the One we love is far better than the thing we see. It is our eyes that see but our mind that loves. Consequently, let us give the mind precedence over the eyes, because the One loved, even though veiled from our gaze is infinitely superior to His works, no matter how evident they are to us. – Augustine, Selected Easter Sermons, Sermon 2 (On the First Chapter of Genesis —Faster Eve), chapter 1

So our Lord came from another realm into our own, out of the land of the living into the land of the dead, from the heights of bliss into the vale of sorrow. He came to us laden with His blessings, yet patiently bore our infirmities. His excellence was kept hidden, while openly He bore our imperfections. Evident to all were His humanity and frailty; concealed His divinity and majesty. The flesh was revealed while the Word of God was veiled. – Augustine, Selected Easter Sermons, Sermon 18 (Easter Monday— Life Here and Hereafter), chapter 1

It is by faith that we touch Jesus. And far better to touch him by faith than to touch or handle him with the hands only and not by faith. It was no great thing to merely touch him manually. Even his oppressors doubtless touched him when they apprehended him, bound him, and crucified him, but by their ill-motivated touch they lost precisely what they were laying hold of. O worldwide church! It is by touching him faithfully that your “faith has made you whole.” – Augustine, Sermons, On Easter 148

Of whom if we endeavor to think, so far as He Himself permits and grants, let us not think of any touch or embrace in local space, as if of three bodies, or of any compactness of conjunction, as fables tell of three-bodied Geryon; but let whatsoever may occur to the mind, that is of such sort as to be greater in three than in each singly, and less in one than in two, be rejected without any doubt; for so everything corporeal is rejected. But also in spiritual things let nothing changeable that may have occurred to the mind be thought of God. For when we aspire from this depth to that height, it is a step towards no small knowledge, if, before we can know what God is, we can already know what He is not. For certainly He is neither earth nor heaven; nor, as it were, earth and heaven; nor any such thing as we see in the heaven; nor any such thing as we do not see, but which perhaps is in heaven. Neither if you were to magnify in the imagination of your thought the light of the sun as much as you are able, either that it may be greater, or that it may be brighter, a thousand times as much, or times without number; neither is this God. Neither as we think of the pure angels as spirits animating celestial bodies, and changing and dealing with them after the will by which they serve God; not even if all, and there are thousands of thousands, were brought together into one, and became one; neither is any such thing God. Neither if you were to think of the same spirits as without bodies — a thing indeed most difficult for carnal thought to do. Behold and see, if you can, O soul pressed down by the corruptible body, and weighed down by earthly thoughts, many and various; behold and see, if you can, that God is truth. For it is written that God is light; not in such way as these eyes see, but in such way as the heart sees, when it is said, He is truth [reality]. Ask not what is truth [reality], for immediately the darkness of corporeal images and the clouds of phantasms will put themselves in the way, and will disturb that calm which at the first twinkling shone forth to you, when I said Truth [reality]. See that you remain, if you can, in that first twinkling with which you are dazzled, as it were, by a flash, when it is said to you, Truth [Reality]. But you can not; you will glide back into those usual and earthly things. And what weight, pray, is it that will cause you so to glide back, unless it be the bird-lime [trap] of the stains of appetite you have contracted, and the errors of your wandering from the right path? – Augustine, On The Trinity, Book 8, chapter 2

6. But it is by love that we must stand firm to this and cleave to this, in order that we may enjoy the presence of that by which we are, and in the absence of which we could not be at all. For as we walk as yet by faith, and not by sight, we certainly do not yet see God, as the same [apostle] says, face to face: whom however we shall never see, unless now already we love. But who loves what he does not know? For it is possible something may be known and not loved: but I ask whether it is possible that what is not known can be loved; since if it cannot, then no one loves God before he knows Him. And what is it to know God except to behold Him and steadfastly perceive Him with the mind? For He is not a body to be searched out by carnal eyes. But before also that we have power to behold and to perceive God, as He can be beheld and perceived, which is permitted to the pure in heart; for “blessed are the pure in heart. for they shall see God;” except He is loved by faith, it will not be possible for the heart to be cleansed, in order that it may be apt and meet to see Him. For where are there those three, in order to build up which in the mind the whole apparatus of the divine Scriptures has been raised up, namely Faith, Hope, and Charity, except in a mind believing what it does not yet see, and hoping and loving what it believes? Even He therefore who is not known, but yet is believed, can be loved. But indisputably we must take care, lest the mind believing that which it does not see, feign to itself something which is not, and hope for and love that which is false. For in that case, it will not be charity out of a pure heart, and of a good conscience, and of faith unfeigned, which is the end of the commandment, as the same apostle says.

7. But it must needs be, that, when by reading or hearing of them we believe in any corporeal things which we have not seen, the mind frames for itself something under bodily features and forms, just as it may occur to our thoughts; which either is not true, or even if it be true, which can most rarely happen, yet this is of no benefit to us to believe in by faith, but it is useful for some other purpose, which is intimated by means of it. For who is there that reads or hears what the Apostle Paul has written, or what has been written of him, that does not imagine to himself the countenance both of the apostle himself, and of all those whose names are there mentioned? And whereas, among such a multitude of men to whom these books are known, each imagines in a different way those bodily features and forms, it is assuredly uncertain which it is that imagines them more nearly and more like the reality. Nor, indeed, is our faith busied therein with the bodily countenance of those men; but only that by the grace of God they so lived and so acted as that Scripture witnesses: this it is which it is both useful to believe, and which must not be despaired of, and must be sought. For even the countenance of our Lord Himself in the flesh is variously fancied by the diversity of countless imaginations, which yet was one, whatever it was. Nor in our faith which we have of our Lord Jesus Christ, is that wholesome which the mind imagines for itself, perhaps far other than the reality, but that which we think of man according to his kind: for we have a notion of human nature implanted in us, as it were by rule, according to which we know immediately, that whatever such thing we see is a man or the form of a man. – Augustine, On The Trinity, book 8, chapter 4

For neither do we know the countenance of the Virgin Mary; from whom, untouched by a husband, nor tainted in the birth itself, He was wonderfully born…. And, in short, whoever of us have not seen these things, know not whether they are as we conceive them to be, nay judge them more probably not to be so. For when the aspect either of a place, or a man, or of any other body, which we happened to imagine before we saw it, turns out to be the same when it occurs to our sight as it was when it occurred to our mind, we are moved with no little wonder. So scarcely and hardly ever does it happen. And yet we believe those things most steadfastly, because we imagine them according to a special and general notion, of which we are certain. For we believe our Lord Jesus Christ to be born of a virgin who was called Mary. But what a virgin is, or what it is to be born, and what is a proper name, we do not believe, but certainly know. And whether that was the countenance of Mary which occurred to the mind in speaking of those things or recollecting them, we neither know at all, nor believe. – Augustine, On The Trinity, Book 8, chapter 5

But in such most deceitful audacity they have been so utterly blinded as simply to have made themselves fitting objects for laughter, even with young people who as yet know Christian literature only in boyish fashion, and rank merely in the grade of readers. For when they made up their minds to represent Christ to have written in such strain as that to His disciples, they bethought themselves of those of His followers who might best be taken for the persons to whom Christ might most readily be believed to have written, as the individuals who had kept by Him on the most familiar terms of friendship. And so Peter and Paul occurred to them, I believe, just because in many places they chanced to see these two apostles represented in pictures as both in company with Him. For Rome, in a specially honourable and solemn manner, commends the merits of Peter and of Paul, for this reason among others, namely, that they suffered [martyrdom] on the same day. Thus to fall most completely into error was the due desert of men who sought for Christ and His apostles not in the holy writings, but on painted walls. Neither is it to be wondered at, that these fiction-limners were misled by the painters. – Augustine, Harmony of the Gospels, book 1, chapter 10

But although the later times did not deify dead men, still they did not cease to hold and worship as gods those deified of old; nay, by images, which the ancients never had, they even increased the allurements of vain and impious superstition, the unclean demons effecting this in their heart…. – Augustine, City of God, Book XVIII, chapter 24

[Faustus]: The pagans accordingly think it right to worship God with altars, and shrines, and images, and sacrifices, and incense. Here also my practice differs entirely from theirs: for I look upon myself as a reasonable temple of God, if I am worthy to be so; and I consider Christ his Son as the living image of his living majesty; and I hold a mind well cultivated to be the true altar, and pure and simple prayers to be the true way of paying divine honors and of offering sacrifices.

[Augustine]: Every one must see the folly of your boasting of superiority to the pagans because they use altars and temples, images and sacrifices and incense, in the worship of God, which you do not. As if it were not better to build an altar and offer sacrifice to a stone, which has some kind of existence, than to employ a heated imagination in worshipping things which have no existence at all. – Augustine, Against Faustus, book 20, chapter 3

• Here, the heretic Faustus tries to defend himself against Augustine’s charges by stating that he rejects pagan ideas and agrees with the church on most issues, but Augustine replies that it won’t save him even if he does reject shrines and images and incense, since he worships a false god of his own imagination.

The very explanations prove that they do not worship that God, the enjoyment of whom can alone give happiness, but things which He has created. And even in the creature they worship not only the virtues, as in Minerva, who sprang from the head of Jupiter, and who represents prudence,—a quality of reason which, according to Plato, has its seat in the head,—but their vices, too, as in Cupid. Thus one of their dramatic poets says, “Sinful passion, in favor of vice, made Love a god.” Even bodily evils had temples in Rome, as in the case of pallor and fever. Not to dwell on the sin of the worshippers of these idols, who are in a way affected by the bodily forms, so that they pay homage to them as deities, when they see them set up in some lofty place, and treated with great honor and reverence, there is greater sin in the very explanations which are intended as apologies for these dumb, and deaf, and blind, and lifeless objects. Still, though, as I have said, these things are nothing in the way of salvation or of usefulness, both they and the things they are said to represent are real existences. But your First Man, warring with the five elements; and your Mighty Spirit, who constructs the world from the captive bodies of the race of darkness, or rather from the members of your god in subjection and bondage; and your World-holder, who has in his hand the remains of these members, and who bewails the capture and bondage and pollution of the rest; and your giant Atlas, who keeps up the World-holder on his shoulders, lest he should from weariness throw away his burden, and so prevent the completion of the final imitation of the mass of darkness, which is to be the last scene in your drama;—these and countless other absurdities are not represented in painting or sculpture, or in any explanation; and yet you believe and worship things which have no existence, while you taunt the Christians with being credulous for believing in realities with a faith which pacifies the mind under its influence. The objects of your worship can be shown to have no existence by many proofs, which I do not bring forward here, because, though I could without difficulty discourse philosophically on the construction of the world, it would take too long to do so here. One proof suffices. If these things are real, God must be subject to change, and corruption, and contamination; a supposition as blasphemous as it is irrational. All these things, therefore, are vain, and false, and unreal. Thus you are much worse than those Pagans, with whom all are familiar, and who still preserve traces of their old customs, of which they themselves are ashamed; for while they worship things which are not gods, you worship things which do not exist. – Augustine, Against Faustus, book 22, chapter 9

1. The peoples and the priests knew quite well how divergent were the views of the philosophers concerning the nature of the gods, for none shrank from publicly professing his opinion, and indeed each endeavoured as far as he could to persuade everybody. And yet all of them with their co-sectaries, in spite of their diverse and mutually hostile opinions, came to the common religious rites, none saying them nay. Now the question is not, Whose opinion was nearest to the truth? But one thing, so far as I can see, is abundantly clear. What the philosophers observed along with the people in the way of religious rites was something quite different from what they defended in private, or even in the hearing of the people.

2. Socrates is said to have been somewhat bolder than the others. He swore by a dog or a stone or any other object that happened to be near him or came to hand, so to speak, when he was to take an oath. I suppose he knew how many natural objects, produced and governed by divine providence, are much better than the works of human artificers, and therefore worthier of divine honours than are the images which are worshipped in the temples. Not that dogs and stones were rightly to be worshipped by wise men; but that in this way all who had intelligence might understand how sunk in superstition men are. He wanted to show that an oath of this kind did represent an advance though not a very great one. If men were ashamed to take this step, they might at least see how shameful it was to remain in the still baser condition of religious practice to which they were accustomed. At the same time those who supposed that the visible world was the supreme God were given to realize their turpitude, for they were taught that any stone might be rightly worshipped as a particle of God most high. If they saw that that was offensive, they might change their minds and seek the one God who alone is superior to our minds, and by whom clearly every soul and the whole world has been created. Plato afterwards wrote all this down, making it pleasant to read rather than potent to persuade. These men were not fit to change the minds of their fellow-citizens, and convert them from idolatrous superstition and worldly vanity to the true worship of the true God. Thus Socrates himself venerated images along with his people, and after his condemnation and death no one dared to swear by a dog or to call a stone Jupiter. These things were merely recorded and handed down to memory. Whether this was due to fear of punishment or to the influence of the times it is not for me to judge. – Augustine, Of True Religion, chapter 1-2

3. This, however, I will say with complete confidence, in spite of all who love so obstinately the books of the philosophers. In Christian times there can be no doubt at all as to which religion is to be received and held fast, and as to where is the way that leads to truth and beatitude. Suppose Plato were alive and would not spurn a question I would put to him; or rather suppose one of his own disciples, who lived at the same time as he did, had addressed him thus: “You have persuaded me that truth is seen not with the bodily eyes but by the pure mind, and that any soul that cleaves to truth is thereby made happy and perfect. Nothing hinders the perception of truth more than a life devoted to lusts, and the false images of sensible things, derived from the sensible world and impressed on us by the agency of the body, which beget various opinions and errors. Therefore the mind has to be healed so that it may behold the immutable form of things which remains ever the same, preserving its beauty unchanged and unchangeable, knowing no spatial distance or temporal variation, abiding absolutely one and the same. Men do not believe in its existence, though it alone truly and supremely exists. Other things are born, die, are dissolved or broken up. But so far as they do exist they have existence from the eternal God, being created by his truth. To the rational and intellectual soul is given to enjoy the contemplation of his eternity, and by that contemplation it is armed and equipped so that it may obtain eternal life. So long as it [the soul] is weakened by love of things that come to be and pass away, or by pain at losing them, so long as it is devoted to the custom of this life and to the bodily senses, and becomes vain among vain images, it laughs at those who say that there is something which cannot be seen by the eyes, or conjured up by any phantasm, but can be beheld by the mind alone, by the intelligence. You, my master, have persuaded me to believe these things. Now, if some great and divine man should arise to persuade the peoples that such things were to be at least believed if they could not grasp them with the mind, or that those who could grasp them should not allow themselves to be implicated in the depraved opinions of the multitude or to be overborne by vulgar errors, would you not judge that such a man is worthy of divine honours?” I believe Plato’s answer would bе: “That could not be done by man, unless the very virtue and wisdom of God delivered him from natural environment, illumined him from his cradle not by human teaching but by personal illumination, honoured him with such grace, strengthened him with such firmness and exalted him with such majesty, that he should be able to despise all that wicked men desire, to suffer all that they dread, to do all that they marvel at, and so with the greatest love and authority to convert the human race to so sound a faith. But it is needless to ask me about the honours that would be due to such a man. It is easy to calculate what honours are due to the wisdom of God. Being the bearer and instrument of the wisdom of God on behalf of the true salvation of the human race, such a man would have earned a place all his own, a place above all humanity.”

4. In order that men may receive the Word, love him, and enjoy him so that the soul may be healed and the eye of the mind receive power to use the light, to the greedy it is declared: “Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth where moth and rust destroy, and where thieves break through and steal. But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven where neither moth nor rust destroys, and where thieves do not break through nor steal. For where your treasure is there will your heart be also” (Matt. 6:19). To the wanton it is said: “He who sows in the flesh shall of the flesh reap corruption. He who sows in the spirit shall of the spirit reap eternal life” (Gal. 6:8). To the proud it is said: “Whosoever exalteth himself shall be abased and whosoever humbleth himself shall be exalted” (Luke 14:11). To the wrathful it is said: “Thou has received a blow. Turn the other cheek” (Matt. 5:39). To those who strive it is said: Love your enemies” (Matt. 5:44). To the superstitious: “The kingdom of God is within you” (Luke 17:21). To the curious: “Look not on the things which are seen, but on the things which are not seen. For the things which are seen are temporal, but the things which are not seen are eternal” (II Cor. 4: 18). Finally, to all it is said: “Love not the world nor the things which are in the world. For everything that is in the world is the lust of the flesh, the lust of the eyes and the ambition of this world” (I John 2:15).

5. These things are read to the peoples throughout all the earth and are listened to most gladly and with veneration. After all the Christian blood shed, after all the burnings and crucifixions of the martyrs, fertilized by these things churches have sprung up as far afield as among barbarian nations. That thousands of young men and maidens contemn marriage and live in chastity causes no one surprise. Plato might have suggested that, but he so dreaded the perverse opinion of his times that he is said to have given in to nature and declared continence to be no sin. Views are accepted which it was once monstrous to maintain, even as it is monstrous now to dispute them. All over the inhabited world the Christian rites are entrusted to men who are willing to make profession and to undertake the obligations required. Every day the precepts of Christianity are read in the churches and expounded by the priests. Those who try to fulfil them beat their breasts in contrition. Multitudes enter upon this way of life from every race, forsaking the riches and honours of the present world, desirous of dedicating their whole life to the one most high God. Islands once deserted and many lands formerly left in solitude are filled with monks. In cities and towns, castles and villages, country places and private estates, there is openly preached and practised such a renunciation of earthly things and conversion to the one true God that daily throughout the entire world with almost one voice the human race makes response: Lift up your hearts to the Lord. Why, then, do we still admiringly yearn for the darkness of yesterday, and look for divine oracles in the entrails of dead cattle? Why, when it comes to disputation, are we so eager to mouth the name of Plato rather than to have the truth in our hearts?

6. Those who think it a vain or even a wicked thing to despise the world of sense, and to subject the soul to God most high that he may purge it with virtue, must be refuted with a different argument; if indeed they are worth disputing with. But those who admit that that is a good ideal to be pursued should acknowledge God and submit to him who has brought it to pass that all nations now are persuaded that these things ought to be believed. They would themselves have brought this to pass if they had had the power. Seeing they had not the power, they cannot avoid the charge of envy. Let them, then, submit to him who has brought it to pass. Let them not be prevented by inquisitiveness or by vain-glory from recognizing the gap that subsists between the timid guesses of the few and the obvious salvation and correction of whole peoples. If Plato and the rest of them, in whose names men glory, were to come to life again and find the churches full and the temples empty, and that the human race was being called away from desire for temporal and transient goods to spiritual and intelligible goods and to the hope of eternal life, and was actually giving its attention to these things, they would perhaps say (if they really were the men they are said to have been): That is what we did not dare to preach to the people. We preferred to yield to popular custom rather than to bring the people over to our way of thinking and living.

8. However philosophers may boast, anyone can easily understand that religion is not to be sought from them. For they take part in the religious rites of their fellow-citizens, but in their schools teach divergent and contrary opinions about the nature of their gods and of the chief good, as the multitude can testify. If we could see this one great vice healed by the Christian discipline, no one should deny that that would be an achievement worthy of all possible praise. Innumerable heresies that turn aside from the rule of Christianity testify that men are not admitted to sacramental communion who think and endeavour to persuade others to think otherwise of God the Father, of his wisdom and of the divine gift [the Holy Spirit] than as the truth demands. So it is taught and believed as a chief point in man’s salvation that philosophy, i.e., the pursuit of wisdom, cannot be quite divorced from religion, for those whose doctrine we do not approve do not share in our sacramental rites.

9. There is little to be surprised at in this in the case of men who have chosen to have different religious rites from ours such as the Ophites whoever they may be, or the Manicheans and others. It is more noticeable in the case of those who celebrate similar religious rites but differ from us in doctrine and are more vigorous in defending their errors than careful to have them corrected. These are excluded from Catholic communion and from participation in our rites in spite of their similarity. They have deserved to have names of their own and separate meetings, being different not only in matters of words, but also because of their superstition; like the Photinians, the Arians and many others. It is another matter with those who have caused schisms. The Lord’s threshing-floor might have kept them as chaff until the time of the last winnowing, had they not in their levity been carried off by the wind of pride, and separated from us of their own accord. The Jews, it is true, worship the one omnipotent God, but they expect from him only temporal and visible goods. Being too secure they were unwilling to observe in their own Scriptures the indications of a new people of God arising out of humble estate, and so they remained in “the old man.” This being so, religion is to be sought neither in the confusion of the pagans, nor in the offscourings of the heretics, nor in the insipidity of schismatics, nor in the blindness of the Jews, but only among those who are called Catholic or orthodox Christians, that is, guardians of truth and followers of right.

11. Often, too, divine providence permits even good men to be driven from the congregation of Christ by the turbulent seditions of carnal men. When for the sake of the peace of the Church they patiently endure that insult or injury, and attempt no novelties in the way of heresy or schism, they will teach men how God is to be served with a true disposition and with great and sincere charity. The intention of such men is to return when the tumult has subsided. But if that is not permitted because the storm continues or because a fiercer one might be stirred up by their return, they hold fast to their purpose to look to the good even of those responsible for the tumults and commotions that drove them out. They form no separate conventicles of their own, but defend to the death and assist by their testimony the faith which they know is preached in the Catholic Church. These the Father who seeth in secret crowns secretly. It appears that this is a rare kind of Christian, but examples are not lacking. Indeed there are more than can be believed. So divine providence uses all kinds of men as examples for the oversight of souls and for the building up of his spiritual people.

14. We must hold fast the Christian religion and the communion of the Church which is Catholic, and is called Catholic not only by its own members but also by all its enemies. Whether they will or no, heretics and schismatics use no other name for it than the name of Catholic, when they speak of it not among themselves but with outsiders. They cannot make themselves understood unless they designate it by this name which is in universal use.

19. Do not, then, let us serve the creature rather than the Creator, or become vain in our thoughts. That is the rule of perfect religion. If we cleave to the eternal Creator we must necessarily be somehow affected by eternity. But because the soul, implicated in and overwhelmed by its sins, cannot by itself see and grasp this truth, if in human experience there were no intermediate stage whereby man might strive to rise above his earthly life and reach likeness to God, God in his ineffable mercy by a temporal dispensation has used the mutable creation, obedient however to his eternal laws, to remind the soul of its original and perfect nature, and so has come to the aid of individual men and indeed of the whole human race. That is the Christian religion in our times. To know and follow it is the most secure and most certain way of salvation.

21. There is no life which is not of God, for God is supreme life and the fount of life. No life is evil as life but only as it tends to death. Life knows no death save wickedness [nequitia] which derives its name from nothingness [ne quidquam]. For this reason wicked men are called men of no worth. A life, therefore, which by voluntary defect falls away from him who made it, whose essence it enjoyed, and, contrary to the law of God, seeks to enjoy bodily objects which God made to be inferior to it, tends to nothingness. This is wickedness, but not because the body as such is nothing. A corporeal object has some concord between its parts, otherwise it could not exist at all. Therefore it was made by him who is the head of all concord. A corporeal object enjoys a certain degree of peace, due to its having form. Without that it would be nothing. Therefore he is the creator of matter, from whom all peace comes, and who is the uncreated and most perfect form. Matter participates in something belonging to the ideal world, otherwise it would not be matter. To ask, therefore, who created matter is to ask for him who is supreme in the ideal world. For every idea comes from him. Who is he, then, save the one God, the one truth, the one salvation of all, the first and highest essence from which all that exists derives existence as such? For all existence as such is good.

22. For that reason death does not come from God. “God did not create death, nor does he take pleasure in the destruction of the living” (Wisdom 1:13). The highest essence imparts existence to all that exists. That is why it is called essence. Death imparts no actual existence to anything which has died. If it is really dead it has indubitably been reduced to nothingness. For things die only in so far as they have a decreasing part in existence. That can be more briefly put in this way: things die according as they become less. Matter is less than any kind of life, since it is life that keeps even the tiniest quantity of matter together in any thing, whether it be the life that governs any particular living thing, or that which governs the entire universe of natural things. Matter is therefore subject to death, and is thereby nearer to nothingness. Life which delights in material joys and neglects God tends to nothingness and is thereby iniquity.

23. In this way life becomes earthly and carnal. So long as it is so it will not possess the kingdom of God, and what it loves will be snatched from it. It loves what, being matter, is less than life, and, on account of the sinfulness of so doing, the beloved object becomes corruptible, is dissolved and lost to its lover, even as it, in loving a material thing, has abandoned God. It neglected his precepts: “Eat this and do not eat that.” Therefore it is punished; for by loving inferior things it is given a place among the inferior creatures, being deprived of its pleasures and afflicted with grief. What is bodily grief but the sudden loss of integrity in something which the soul has made a bad use of, so rendering it liable to corruption? And what is spiritual grief but to lose mutable things which the soul enjoyed or hoped to be able to enjoy? This covers the whole range of evil, i.e., sin and its penalty.

26. The evil angel, who is called the devil, will have no power over the sanctified. Even he, so far as he is angel, is not evil, but only so far as he has been perverted by his own will. We must admit that even angels are mutable if God alone is immutable. By willing to love God rather than themselves angels abide firm and stable in him and enjoy his majesty, being gladly subject to him alone. The bad angel loved himself more than God, refused to be subject to God, swelled with pride, came short of supreme being and fell. He became less than he had been, because, in wishing to enjoy his own power rather than God’s, he wished to enjoy what was less. He never had supreme existence for that belongs to God alone, but he had an ampler existence than he has now, when he enjoyed that which supremely is. His present existence is not evil [quâ] existence, but so far as it is less ample than it formerly was. To that extent he tends towards extinction. It is no marvel that his loss occasioned poverty, and poverty envy, which is the truly diabolical characteristic of the devil.

30. To heal souls God adopts all kinds of means suitable to the times which are ordered by his marvellous wisdom. I must not speak of these, or at least they must be spoken of only among the pious and the perfect. But in no way did he show greater loving-kindness in his dealings with the human race for its good, than when the Wisdom of God, his only Son, coeternal and consubstantial with the Father, deigned to assume human nature; when the Word became flesh and dwelt among us. For thus he showed to carnal people, given over to bodily sense and unable with the mind to behold the truth, how lofty a place among creatures belonged to human nature, in that he appeared to men not merely visibly – for he could have done that in some ethereal body adapted to our weak powers of vision – but as a true man. The assuming of our nature was to be also its liberation. And that no one should perchance suppose that the creator of sex despised sex, he became a man born of a woman.

39. Vice in the soul arises from its own doing; and the moral difficulty that ensues from vice is the penalty which it suffers. That is the sum-total of evil. To do and to suffer have nothing to do with substance; hence substance is not evil. Water is not evil, nor is a creature that lives in the air. But to throw oneself voluntarily into water and be suffocated, as the drowned man is, is evil. An iron style which has one part for writing with and another part for making deletions is ingeniously manufactured and beautiful in its own way, and most useful to us. But if one wanted to write with the part intended for making deletions, or to make a deletion with the writing end, one would not cause the style to be evil. One would rightly blame one’s own action. Correct the action and where will be the evil? Suppose one were suddenly to turn one’s eyes to look at the mid-day sun. The eyes would be dazzled and pained; but neither the sun nor the eyes would for that reason be evil. They are substances. Careless looking at the sun and the disturbance that is its consequence is evil. And there would be no evil if the eyes had been practised and made fit to look at the light. Nor is light evil when the light we see with our eyes is worshipped instead of the light of wisdom which is seen by the mind. The superstition is evil that serves the creature rather than the Creator; and there would be no such evil if the soul recognized its Creator, subjected itself to him alone, and understood that other things were made subject to it by him.

40. Every corporeal creature, when possessed by a soul that loves God, is a good thing of the lowest order, and beautiful in its own way, for it is held together by form and species. If it is loved by a soul that neglects God, not even so is it evil in itself. But the sin of so loving it brings a penalty to him who so loves it. It involves him in miseries, and feeds him with fallacious pleasures which neither abide nor satisfy, but beget torturing sorrows. Time in all the beauty of its changefulness holds on its appointed course, and the thing desired escapes him who loved it. It torments him by passing beyond his power to sense it, and disturbs his mind with errors. For it makes him suppose that the material object which the flesh had wrongly delighted in, and which he had known through the uncertain senses, was the primal form, when in fact it was the lowest form of all; so that, when he thinks, he believes he understands, being deluded by shadowy phantasms. If he does not hold fast to the whole discipline of divine providence but imagines he does, and tries to resist the flesh, he merely reaches the images of visible things. He vainly excogitates vast spaces of light exactly like ordinary light which he sees has fixed limits here, and promises himself a future habitation there. He does not know that he is still entangled in the lust of the eye, and that he is carrying this world with him in his endeavour to go beyond it. He thinks he has reached another world simply by falsely imagining the bright part of this world infinitely extended. One could do the same not only with light but also with water, wine, honey, gold, silver, even with the flesh, blood and bones of animals, and other like things. There is no bodily object seen singly which cannot in thought be infinitely multiplied, and there is nothing which, as we see it, occupies a small space, which cannot by the same faculty of imagination be infinitely extended. It is very easy to execrate the flesh, but very difficult not to be carnally minded.

44. Every rational soul is made unhappy by its sins or happy by its well-doing. Every irrational soul yields to one that is more powerful, or obeys one that is better, or is on terms of equality with its equals, exercising rivals, or harming any it has overcome. Every body is obedient to its soul so far as permitted by the merits of the latter or the orderly arrangement of things.

47. Another thing which must be considered is the dissension that has arisen among men concerning the worship of the one God. We have heard that our predecessors, at a stage in faith on the way from temporal things up to eternal things, followed visible miracles. They could do nothing else. And they did so in such a way that it should not be necessary for those who came after them. When the Catholic Church had been founded and diffused throughout the whole world, on the one hand miracles were not allowed to continue till our time, lest the mind should always seek visible things, and the human race should grow cold by becoming accustomed to things which when they were novelties kindled its faith. On the other hand we must not doubt that those are to be believed who proclaimed miracles, which only a few had actually seen, and yet were able to persuade whole peoples to follow them. At that time the problem was to get people to believe before anyone was fit to reason about divine and invisible things.

52. We have said enough for the present about the benefit of authority. Let us see how far reason can advance from visible to invisble things in its ascent from temporal to eternal things. We should not vainly behold the beauty of the sky, the order of the stars, the brightness of light, the alternations of day and night, the monthly courses of the moon, the fourfold seasons of the year, the meeting of the four elements, the life-force of seeds begetting forms and numbers, and all things that keep their nature and their appropriate measure each in its own kind. In considering these things there should be no exercise of vain and perishing curiosity, but a step should be taken towards immortal things that abide for ever. The first thing to notice is living nature which senses all these things. Because it gives life to the body it must necessarily excel the body. No mass of matter, however great or however bright, is to be held of much account if it is without life. Any living substance is by the law of nature to be preferred to any inanimate substance.

53. No one doubts that irrational animals also live and feel. So in the human mind the most excellent part is not that which perceives sensible objects but that which judges of sensible objects. Many animals see more sharply and have a keener sense of corporeal objects than men have. But to judge of bodies belongs not to life that is merely sentient, but to life that has also the power of reasoning. Where the animals are lacking, there is our excellence. It is easy to see that that which judges is superior to that which is judged. For living reason judges not only of sensible things but also of the senses themselves. It knows why the oar dipped in water must appear crooked though it is really straight, and why the eyes must see it in that way. Ocular vision can only tell us that it is so but cannot judge. Wherefore it is manifest that as the life of sense excels the body the life of reason excels both.

54. If rational life judges by itself alone, then there is nothing more excellent. But clearly it is mutable, since it can be skilled at one moment and unskilled at another. The more skilled it is the better it judges, and its skill is in proportion to its participation in some art, discipline or wisdom. Now we must ask what is the nature of an art. By an art in this context I would have you understand not something that is observed by experience but something that is found out by reason. There is nothing very remarkable in knowing that sand and lime bind stones more securely together than mud, or that he who would build elegantly, must put a feature that is to be unique in the middle of the building, and, if there are several features, they must be made to like with like. That is correspond, sense knowledge, but it is not far from reason and truth. We must indeed inquire what is the cause of our being dissatisfied if two windows are placed not one above the other but side by side, and one of them is greater or less than the other, for they ought to have been equal; while, if they are placed one directly above the other, even though they are unlike, the inequality does not offend us in the same way. Why don’t we notice very much how much the one is greater or less than the other? If there are three windows, sense itself seems to demand either that they should not be unequal, or that between the largest and the smallest there should be an intermediate one as much larger than the smallest as it is smaller than the largest. In this way we take counsel with nature, as it were, to see what she approves. And here we must observe how that which displeases us only a little when we simply look at it, is rejected when we compare it with what is better. Thus we discover that art in the poрular sense is nothing but the memory of things we have experienced and which have given us pleasure, with the addition of some skilled bodily activity. If you lack the skill you can still judge of the works produced even though you cannot produce them. And the power of judging is much better.

56. All things which are beautiful to the senses, whether they are produced by nature or are worked out by the arts, have a spatial or temporal beauty, as for example the body and its movements. But the equality and unity which are known only by the mind, and асcording to which the mind judges of corporeal beauty by the intermediary of the senses, are not extended in space or unstable in time.

59. But many stop with what delights men and are unwilling to rise to higher things, so that they may judge why visible things give pleasure. If I ask a workman why, after constructing one arch, he builds another like it over against it, he will reply, I dare say, that in a building like parts must correspond to like. If I go further and ask why he thinks so, he will say that it is fitting, or beautiful, or that it gives pleasure to those who behold it. But he will venture no further. He will bow and direct his eyes downward and not understand the cause for all this. But if I have to do with a man with inward eyes who can see the invisible, I shall not cease to press the query why these things give pleasure, so that he may dare to be the judge of human pleasure. He transcends it and escapes from its control in judging pleasure and not according to pleasure. First I shall ask him whether things are beautiful because they give pleasure, or give pleasure because they are beautiful. Then I shall ask him why they are beautiful, and if he is perplexed, I shall add the question whether it is because its parts correspond and are so joined together as to form one harmonious whole.

6o. When he sees that that is so, I shall ask whether they completely achieve the unity they aim at, or fall far short of it, and in a measure misrepresent it. No one who is put on his guard can fail to see that there is no form or material thing which does not have some trace of unity, or that no material thing however beautiful can possibly achieve the unity it aims at, since it must necessarily have its parts separated by intervals of space. If this is so, I shall ask him to tell me where he sees that unity, and what is its source; and if he cannot see it, how does he know what it is that material things imitate but cannot completely achieve. If he says of material things: You would not exist unless some kind of unity held you together, but on the other hand if you were unity itself you would not be material things? the correct reply would be: Whence have you acquired the knowledge of unity according to which you judge material things? Unless you had seen it you would not be able to judge that they come short of it. You would not be right to say that you see it with your bodily eyes, although things do show traces of it, but they come nowhere near it. With the bodily eyes you see nothing but corporeal things. Therefore it is with the mind that we see true unity. But where? If it were here where our body is, it would not be visible to a man who in eastern parts judges in the same way about corporeal things. It is not, then, circumscribed by space. It is present wherever anyone judges in this way. It is nowhere present spatially, but its potency is nowhere absent.

62. Even the eyes do not cause mistakes, for they can report nothing to the mind except what they actually see. If not only the eyes but also all the bodily senses report simply as they are affected, I know not what more we ought to expect of them. If there are no vain people there will be no vanity. Anyone who thinks that the oar is broken in the water and is restored when it is taken out has nothing wrong with his senses, but he is a bad judge of what they convey to him. By nature he could have seen nothing else in the water, nor ought he to have seen anything else. Air and water differ, so it is proper that sensations should be different according as they relate to things in air and in water. So the eye does its duty correctly, for it was made simply to see. But the mind operates perversely, for it and not the eye was made to contemplate supreme beauty. Such a man as we have been speaking of wants to turn his mind to corporeal things and his eyes to God. He seeks to know carnal things and to see spiritual things. But that is impossible.

63. That perversity must be corrected. Otherwise things are all out of order, up is down and down is up. Such a man will not be fit for the kingdom of heaven. Do not let us seek the highest in the lowest, nor cleave to the lowest. Let us judge these things lest we be judged along with them. Let us attribute to them no more than, as lowest forms, they deserve, lest seeking the first in the last, we be numbered with the last instead of with the first. That is no disadvantage to these lowest things but is a great disadvantage to us. The divine providential government is not on that account any less fitting because the unjust are put in their just place and the foul are fairly dealt with. If the beauty of visible things causes us to make mistakes because it consists in unity but does not completely achieve unity, let us understand if we can that the mistake arises not from what they are but from what they are not. Every corporeal thing is a true body but a false unity. For it is not supremely one and does not completely imitate unity. And yet it would not be a body either if it did not have some unity. Besides it could have no unity unless it derived it from supreme unity.

64. Obstinate souls! Give me a single man who can see without being influenced by imaginations derived from things seen in the flesh. Give me a single man who can see that there is no principle of unity but that alone from which all unity derives, whether it be complete unity or not. Point me out one who sees, not one who merely cavils, and wants to appear to see what he does not see. Give me a man who can resist the carnal senses and the impressions which they impose on the mind; one who can resist human custom and human praise, who suffers the stings of conscience on his bed and restores his soul, who loves not external vanities nor seeks lies; who can say to himself: If there is only one Rome which some Romulus is said to have founded on the Tiber, that is a false Rome which I conjure up in my thoughts. My imaginary Rome is not the real Rome, nor am I really there; otherwise I should know what was taking place there. If there is one sun, that is a false one which I conjure up in thought, for the real sun pursues its course in its appointed place and time. The imaginary sun I place where and when I will. If my friend is one, I conjure up a false image. I do not know where the real one is, but the imaginary one is where I like to put him. I myself am one person, and I feel that my body is here, but in imagination I go where I like, and speak to whom I like. These imaginary things are false, and what is false cannot be known. When I contemplate them and believe in them, I do not have knowledge, because what I contemplate with the intelligence must be true, and not by any possibility what are commonly called phantasms. Whence, then, is my mind full of illusions? Where is the truth which the mind beholds? It can be replied to one who thinks in this way that that is the true light which enables you to know that these things are not true. By the true light you see the unity whereby you judge whatever you see to be one. But it is quite a different thing from any mutable thing you can see.

65. If your mind eagerly pants to behold these things, keep quiet. Do not strive except against being accustomed to material things. Conquer that habit and you are victorious over all. We seek unity, the simplest thing of all. Therefore let us seek it in simplicity of heart. “Be still and know that I am God” (Ps. 46:10). This is not the stillness of idleness but of thought, free from space and time. Swelling fleeting phantasms do not permit us to see abiding unity. Space offers us something to love, but time steals away what we love and leaves in the soul crowds of phantasms which incite desire for this or that. Thus the mind becomes restless and unhappy, vainly trying to hold that by which it is held captive. It is summoned to stillness so that it may not love the things which cannot be loved without toil. So it will master them. It will hold them and not be held by them. “My yoke,” says the Lord, “is light” (Matt. 11:30). He who is subject to that yoke has everything else subject to himself. He will not labour, for what is subject does not resist. Men could be masters of this world if they were willing to be the sons of God, for God has given them the power to become his sons. But the unhappy friends of this world so fear to be separated from its embrace that nothing is more toilsome to them than to be at rest.

66. Whoever clearly sees that falsehood is thinking something is what it is not, knows that truth is that which declares what is. If material things deceive us in so far as they fall short of the unity which they demonstrably imitate, we naturally approve them; for that is the principle from which all unity derives, and to resemble which all things strive. We equally disapprove all that departs from unity and tends towards its opposite. We can understand that there is something so resembling the sole unity and principle of all unity that it coincides with it and is identical with it. This is truth, the Word that was in the beginning [in principio], the divine Word that was with God. If falsehood springs from things which imitate unity, not in so far as they imitate it but in so far as they cannot achieve it, the truth which does achieve it, and is identical with it, is unity and manifests unity as it is in reality. Hence, it is rightly called unity’s Word and Light. Other things may be said to be like unity in so far as they have being, and so far they are also true. But this is itself the complete likeness of unity, and is therefore truth. Truth makes all things true which are true, and likeness makes things like which are alike. Truth is the form of all things which are true, and likeness of all things which are alike, since things are true in so far as they have being, and have being in so far as they resemble the source of all unity, that is, the form of all things that have being, which is the supreme likeness of the principle. It is also perfect truth because it is without any unlikeness.

67. Falsehood arises not because things deceive us, for they can show the beholder nothing but their form, and that they have received according to their position in the scale of beauty. Nor do the senses deceive us, for when they are in contact with natural objects they report to their presiding mind nothing but the impressions formed upon them. It is sin which deceives souls, when they seek something that is true but abandon or neglect truth. They love the works of the artificer more than the artificer or his art, and are punished by falling into the error of expecting to find the artificer and his art in his works, and when they cannot do so they think that the works are both the art and the artificer. God is not offered to the corporeal senses, and transcends even the mind.

68. This is the origin of all impiety of sinners who have been condemned for their sins. Not only do they wish to scrutinize the creation contrary to the commandment of God, and to enjoy it rather than God’s law and truth – that was the sin of the first man who misused his free will – but in their state of condemnation they also make this addition to their sin. They not only love but also serve the creature rather than the Creator, and worship the parts of the creation from the loftiest to the lowliest. Some worship the soul in place of the most high God, the first intellectual creature which the Father made by means of the truth, that it might ever behold the truth, and beholding the truth might also behold himself whom the truth resembles in every way. Next, men come to the living creature through which God eternal and unchangeable makes things visible and temporal in the realm of becoming. Then they slip further down and worship animals and even material things, among which they first choose the more beautiful, above all the heavenly bodies. Some are satisfied with the sun, the most obvious of the heavenly bodies. Others think the moon worthy of religious veneration because of its brightness. It is nearer to us, we are told, and so is felt to have a form that is closer to us. Others add the rest of the stars and the sky as a whole with its constellations. Others join the air to the ethereal sky and make their souls subordinate to these two superior corporeal elements. But those think themselves most religious who worship the whole created universe, that is, the world with all that is in it, and the life which inspires and animates it, which some believe to be corporeal, others incorporeal. The whole of this together they think to be one great God, of whom all things are parts. They have not known the author and maker of the universe. So they abandon themselves to idols, and, forsaking the works of God, they are immersed in the works of their own hands, all of them visible things.

69. There is another worse and lower idolatry which worships phantasms. Whatever the erring soul in its swelling pride can imagine, they hold as an object of religious worship until at last some conclude that nothing at all should be worshipped, and that men err who allow themselves to get involved in superstition and miserable servitude. But these opinions are vain. They cannot make themselves free. There remain the vices, and they are drawn towards the notion of worshipping them. They are slaves of desire in three forms – desire of pleasure, desire of excelling, desire of novel entertainment. I say that there is no man who holds that there is nothing he ought to worship, who is not the slave of carnal pleasures, or seeks vain power, or is madly delighted by some showy spectacle. So, without knowing it, they love temporal things and hope for blessedness therefrom. Whether he will or no, a man is necessarily a slave to the things by means of which he seeks to be happy. He follows them whithersoever they lead, and fears anyone who seems to have the power to rob him of them. Now a spark of fire or a tiny animal can do that. In short, not to mention innumerable adverse possibilities, time itself must snatch away all transient things. Now since the world includes all temporal things, those who think to escape servitude by not worshipping anything are in fact the slaves of all kinds of worldly things. In their present extremity unhappy men are so placed that they allow their vices to lord it over them, and are condemned for their lust, pride or curiosity, or for two of them or all together. Nevertheless, so long as they are in this stadium of human life they may attack these vices and overcome them, if they begin by believing what they cannot yet grasp with the understanding, and thereby cease to love the world. As it is written: “All that is in the world is lust of the flesh, lust of the eyes, and ambition of this world” (I John 2:1б). Three classes of men are thus distinguished; for lust of the flesh means those who love the lower pleasures, lust of the eyes means the curious, and ambition of this world denotes the proud.

72. What obstacle then remains to hinder the soul from recalling the primal beauty which it abandoned, when it can make an end of its vices? The Wisdom of God extends from end to end with might. By wisdom the great Artificer knit his works together with one glorious end in view. His goodness has no grudging envy against any beauty from the highest to the lowest, for none can have being except from him alone. So that no one is utterly cast away from the truth who has in him the slightest vestige of truth. What is it about bodily pleasure that holds us fast? You will find that it is agreeableness. Disagreeable things beget grief and agreeable things beget pleasure. Seek therefore the highest agreeableness. Do not go abroad. Return within yourself. In the inward man dwells truth. If you find that you are by nature mutable, transcend yourself. But remember in doing so that you must also transcend yourself even as a reasoning soul. Make for the place where the light of reason is kindled. What does every good reasoner attain but truth? And yet truth is not reached by reasoning, but is itself the goal of all who reason. There is an agreeableness than which there can be no greater. Agree, then, with it. Confess that you are not as it is. It has to do no seeking, but you reach it by seeking, not in space, but by a disposition of mind, so that the inward man may agree with the indwelling truth in a pleasure that is not low and carnal but supremely spiritual.

74. But what gives pleasure is not so much the mobile form as the life which causes the mobility. For if the child loves us it strongly attracts us. If it hates us we are angry and cannot endure it, even though its form be such as we might enjoy. All this is the realm of pleasure and of beauty of the lowest grade. It is subject to corruption, otherwise it would be mistaken for the supreme beauty.

77. We must admit that a weeping man is better than a happy worm. And yet I could speak at great length without any falsehood in praise of the worm. I could point out the brightness of its colouring, the slender rounded shape of its body, the fitness of its parts from front to rear, and their effort to preserve unity as far as is possible in so lowly a creature. There is nothing anywhere about it that does not correspond to something else that matches it. What am I to say about its soul animating its tiny body? Even a worm’s soul causes it to move with precision, to seek things suitable for it, to avoid or overcome difficulties as far as possible. Having regard always to the sense of safety, its soul hints much more clearly than its body at the unity which creates all natures. I am speaking of any kind of living worm. Many have spoken fully and truly in praise of ashes and dung. What wonder is it then if I say that a man’s soul, which, wherever it is and whatever its quality, is better than any body, is beautifully ordered, and that other beauties arise even from the penalties it undergoes?

78. Henceforth, let no one deceive us. Whatever is rightly to be blamed is spurned in comparison with what is better. Every existing thing however lowly is justly praised when it is compared with nothingness. Nothing is good if it can be better. If we can be in good case having the truth itself, our state is bad if we have only a trace of truth, and much worse if the trace is extremely slight as when we adhere to fleshly pleasures. Let us conquer the blandishments and troubles of desire.

86. He who loves only what cannot be snatched from him is indubitably unconquerable, and is tortured by no envy. He loves what many have come to know and to love, thereby deserving to be congratulated. For he loves God with all his heart and with all his soul and with all his mind, and his neighbour as himself. God does not grudge his becoming as he is himself. Rather he even helps him as much as possible. He cannot lose his neighbour whom he loves as himself, for he does not love even in himself the things that appear to the eyes or to any other bodily sense. So he has inward fellowship with him whom he loves as himself.

94. All curiosity with regard to spectacles aims at nothing else than the joy of knowing things. What, then, is more wonderful and beautiful than truth? Every spectator admits that he wants to reach truth. Hence he takes great care not to be deceived, and vaunts himself if he shows more acuteness and vivacity than others in watching and learning and judging. Men carefully and closely watch a juggler who professes nothing but deceit. If his tricks elude discovery they are delighted with the cleverness of the man who hoodwinks them. If he did not know how to mislead those who were looking on, or was believed not to know, no one would applaud. But any of the people who catches him out thinks himself worthy of greater praise than the juggler for no other reason than that he could not be deceived or taken in. If many see through the trick the juggler is not praised, but the rest who cannot see it are laughed at. So the palm is always awarded to knowledge, to the comprehension of truth. But no one can reach truth who looks for it outside the mind.

95. When we are asked which is better, truth or falsehood, we answer with one voice that truth is better. And yet we are so sunk in trifles and baseness that we are much more ready to cling to jests and games in which deception, not truth, delights us, than to the precepts of the truth itself. So by our own judgment and out of our own mouth we are sentenced because we approve one thing by reason and pursue another in our vanity. So long as a thing is a matter of fun and games, we know that it arouses laughter when it counterfeits truth. But when we love such things we fall away from truth, and cannot discover what they imitate, and so we pant for them as if they were the prime objects of beauty. Getting further away from these primal objects we embrace our phantasms. When we return to seek truth phantasms meet us in the way and will not allow us to pass on, attacking us like brigands, not indeed with violence but with dangerous pitfalls, because we do not know how widely applicable is the saying: “Keep yourselves from images” (I John 5:21).

97. All that I have said about the light of the mind is made clear by that same light. By it I know that what I have said is true, and that I know that I know it. I know that that light has extension neither in space nor in time. I know that I cannot know unless I am alive, and I know more certainly that by knowing I attain a richer life. Eternal life surpasses temporal life in vivacity, and only by knowing do I get a glimpse of what eternity is. By looking at eternity with the mind’s eye I remove from it all changeableness, and in eternity I see no temporal duration, for periods of time are constituted by the movements, past or future, of things. In eternity there is neither past nor future. What is past has ceased to be, and what is future has not yet begun to be. Eternity is ever the same. It never “was” in the sense that it is not now, and it never “will be” in the sense that it is not yet.

98. If we cannot yet cleave to eternity, at least let us drive away our phantasms, and cast out of our mental vision trifling and deceptive games. Let us use the steps which divine providence has deigned to make for us. When we delighted over much in silly figments, and grew vain in our thoughts, and turned our whole life into vain dreams, the ineffable mercy of God did not disdain to use rational angelic creatures to teach us by means of sounds and letters, by fire and smoke and cloudy pillar, as by visible words. So with parables and similitudes in a fashion he played with us when we were children, and sought to heal our inward eyes by smearing them with clay.

99. For in the sacred books we find mention made of the anger of God, his sadness, his awaking from sleep, his remembering and forgetting, and other things which can happen to good men. Not only so, there is also mention of his repentance, his zeal, his feasting and other such things. Are God’s eyes and hands and feet, and other members named in Scripture, to be held to refer to something like the visible form of the human body? Or do they signify intelligible and spiritual powers, as do such words in Scripture as helmet, shield, sword, girdle and the like? Above all we must ask how it profits the human race that the divine providence has spoken to us by human rational and corporeal creatures who have been the servants of God. When we have come to know that one truth, all puerile impudence is driven from our minds and holy religion comes into its own.

100. Putting aside, therefore, all theatrical and poetic trifling, let us by the diligent study of the divine Scriptures, find food and drink for our minds; for they are weary and parched with the hunger and thirst of vain curiosity, and desire in vain to be refreshed and satisfied with silly phantasms, as unreal as painted banquets. Let us be wholesomely educated by this truly liberal and noble game. If wonderful and beautiful spectacles afford us delight, let us desire to see wisdom “which teaches from one end to the other with might, and pleasantly disposes of all things.” What is more wonderful than incorporeal might making and ruling the corporeal world? What more beautiful than its ordering and adorning the material world?

101. All admit that these things are perceived by the body, and that the mind is better than the body. Will not the mind by itself have some object that it can perceive which must be far more excellent and far nobler? We are put in mind by the things of which we are judges to look to that standard by which we judge. We turn from artistic works to the law of the arts, and we shall behold with the mind the form by comparison with which all the things are tarnished which its very goodness has made beautiful. “For the invisible things of God from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and Godhead” (Rom. 1:20). This is the return from temporal to eternal things, and the transformation of the old man into the new. What can fail to urge man to strive for virtue, when his very vices urge him? Curiosity seeks nothing but knowledge, which cannot be certain knowledge unless it be knowledge of eternal things which remain ever the same. Pride seeks nothing but power, which has reference to facility in acting. But power is attained only by the perfect soul which is submissive to God and which with great love turns towards his kingdom. Bodily pleasure seeks nothing but rest, and there is no rest save where there is no poverty and no corruption.

104. To those who make a bad use of so good a thing as the mind, desiring visible things outside the mind which ought to remind them to behold and love intelligible things, to them will be given outer darkness. The beginning of this darkness is fleshly knowledge and the weakness of the bodily senses. Those who de- light in strife will be aliens from peace and involved in frightful difficulties.

106. The talent was not given to him who had received two talents, for he who lives aright both in thought and action already has all he needs. It was given to him who had received five. For he has not yet sufficient mental strength to contemplate eternal things who puts his trust in visible and temporal things. But he can acquire it who praises God, the maker of all sensible things; who trusts God by faith, waits on God in hope, and seeks him in love.

108. Let not our religion consist in phantasms of our own imagining. Any kind of truth is better than any fiction we may choose to produce. And yet we must not worship the soul, though the soul remains true even when we entertain false imaginations about it. Stubble, which is nevertheless real, is better than light fabricated at will by the vain thought of him who imagines it; and yet it would be madness to hold stubble, which we can perceive and touch, to be worthy of our worship. Let not our religion be the worship of human works. The workmen are better than their works, yet we must not worship them. Let not our religion be the worship of beasts. The worst men are better than beasts, but we must not worship them. Let not our religion be the worship of dead men. If they lived pious lives, it must not be supposed that they seek divine honours. They want us to worship Him, in whose light they rejoice to have us as sharers in their merit. They are to be honoured by imitation and not adored with religious rites. If they lived evil lives, wherever they now are, they are not to be worshipped. Let not our religion be the worship of demons, for all superstition is the punishment and the deadly disgrace of men, but it is the glory and triumph of demons.

109. religion be the worship of lands and waters. Air is purer and clearer than these, though it can also be foggy; we must not worship air. Let not our religion be the worship of the purer and more serene upper air, for it is dark when there is no light. Purer than air is the brightness of fire, which, however, we ought not to worship, since we can kindle and extinguish it at will. Let not our religion be the worship of ethereal and celestial bodies, for although they are rightly preferred to all other bodies, still any kind of life is better than they. If they are animated by a soul, any soul in itself is better than any animated body, and yet no one has ever thought that a vicious soul was to be worshipped. Let not our religion be the worship of the life that trees live, for it is not sentient life. It is of the kind that goes on in the rhythm of our bodies, the sort of life that our bones and hair have, and our hair can be cut without our feeling anything. Sentient life is better than this, and yet we must not worship such life as beasts have.

110. Let not our religion be the worship of the perfectly wise rational soul, as it is found in angels who steadfastly carry on their ministry in the universe or in its parts, or in the best of men who await the reformation of their lower selves. All rational life obeys the voice of unchangeable truth speaking silently within the soul. If it does not so obey it is vicious. Rational life therefore does not owe its excellence to itself, but to the truth which it willingly obeys. The lowest man must worship the same God as is worshipped by the highest angel. In fact it is by refusing to worship him that human nature has been brought low. The source of wisdom and of truth is the same for angel and man, namely the one unchangeable Wisdom and Truth. The very Virtue and changeless Wisdom of God, consubstantial and coeternal with the Father, for our salvation deigned, in the temporal dispensation, to take upon himself our nature in order to teach us that man must worship what every rational intellectual creature must also worship. Let us believe that the highest angels and most excellent ministers of God want us to join them in the worship of the one God, in contemplation of whom they find their happiness. Even we are not made happy by seeing an angel but by seeing the truth, by which we love the angels too and rejoice with them. We do not grudge that they should have readier access to the truth and enjoy it without obstacle. Rather we love them because we are bidden by our common Lord to hope for the same condition hereafter. So we honour them with love, but not with divine worship. We do not build temples for them. They do not wish to be honoured by us in that way, because they know that when we are good men we are ourselves the temples of the most high God. Accordingly it is written, with complete propriety that an angel once forbade a man to worship him, bidding him worship the one God under whom both angel and man were fellow-servants (Rev. 19: 10).

111. Those who invite us to serve and worship themselves as gods are like proud men who, if they could, would like to be worshipped in that way. It is less perilous to endure such men than to worship demons. All lordship of men over men is brought to an end by the death of the lord or of the servant. Servitude under the pride of the evil angels is more to be feared on account of the time that is to follow death. Anyone can easily see that under a human lord we are allowed to have our thoughts free. We fear the lordship of demons because it is exercised over the mind in which is found our only means of beholding and grasping the truth. – Augustine, On True Religion, chapters 1-111

Paulinus of Nola (354-431 AD):

Dedicate to God your powers of mind and all the resources of intellect and tongue; offer to Him, as Scripture says, the sacrifice of praise (Hebrews 13:15) with eloquent tongue and devoted heart. As soon as you concentrate your mind’s eye on the sanctuary above, Truth will reveal Its face to you and unlock to you your own person, because it is by recognition of the divine truth that we also come to know ourselves. For how do you think that such perverse pride or indolence has become implanted in wretched men that they stop worshipping God, become slaves to evil spirits or to the elements subordinated to us, and reverence water, fire, stars, trees, and images, thus inflicting the most impious wrong on God’s majesty? Whether it is demons or created things that they worship under God’s name, they are exalting slaves; and so they deserve to be blinded with the darkness which, because they are unwilling to know the true God, afflicts them also with ignorance of themselves. Of such ignorance the man enlightened by faith is freed. – Paulinus of Nola, Letter 16.9 (written around 400 AD)

Quodvultdeus of Carthage (? – 450 AD):

Let us believe, then, so that we may understand, but let us pray so that we may deserve to understand what we believe.’ 3. For sins and their author, the devil, have separated the soul from God: in following the seducer, the creature deserted his savior. 4. Much ruin has resulted: the soul strayed from the truth to worship idols in place of God and, in deserting him by who everything was made, adored the very things which he made. 5. For by adoring stone that has no life, one perishes by deserting the God who is his true and eternal life. Hence every error; hence the desertion of the good; hence pagan worship and the perversity of heretics. 6. Souls have gone astray through desires both diverse and perverse, such that some worshiped the sun, others the moon and stars, others the mountains, others stones and certain trees, with the result that each one believed that he had found for himself not God the helper but the devil, the deceiver. 7. And so, in these diverse ways the soul has wandered from its creator, with the result that everything God had given for its use the soul worshiped as God. Have not all things been created for man? 8. May whoever reads the sacred scriptures also discover that God said to man, whom he formed from the slime of the earth, “Increase and multiply, both fill the earth and rule over it; and have power over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air, and the cattle of the fields” [Gen 1:28; cf. 8:17; 9:1-2]. And further on a little: “Behold,” it says, “I have given all things to you for your use and for food” [Gen 1:29]. 10. Moreover, the very nature of things, coupled with the works of the world itself, convince unbelievers about their condition as slaves, especially since they do not want to read the sacred scriptures…. – Quodvultdeus of Carthage, THE SECOND HOMILY ON THE CREED, chapter 2

21. The earth exclaims: “Well, then, O man, why do you ascribe the name of divinity to me? For you do not know what I am, because you have forgotten who you are. You do not know the stuff out of which you are made; you do not realize that you are my slime, fashioned from me but, unlike me, with a soul. 22. Among all the animals begotten of me, you do not realize that only you (just below God) have been constituted master of the world. You did not understand aright. Although you were in a place of honor, you did not realize that you were [still] likened to mindless beasts of burden—and you have become like them [Ps 48:13].” – Quodvultdeus of Carthage, THE SECOND HOMILY ON THE CREED, chapter 2

5. But let our sacred literature propose a different sort of God; hear Paul the Apostle: “May honor and glory be, he says, to the immortal, invisible, unchanging, only God” [1 Tim 1:7]. Our God is not seen by the eyes of flesh but by the eyes of the heart; he is seen in eternity not time. 6. But the pagan says: “Show me the one you worship.” I reply, “I, indeed, have just the kind of God to show you, but you do not have the eyes to see.” 7. For the Savior says, “Blessed are the pure in heart; because they will see God himself” [Matt 5:8]. Does the heart impure and shrouded in darkness seek to see God? 8. “The light illumined the darkness, but the darkness did not comprehend it” [John 1:5]. Can it be that, because the blind person does not see, the light does not shine? 9. If you had known, O unbeliever, how to say to the true God, “Illumine my eyes” [Ps 12:4], like us you would now see through a glass darkly, so that you would then see face to face [1 Cor 13:12]. 10. If you understood the Artist from his works of art, you would easily infer the Creator from his creatures. Were you to have experienced great terror in yourself because you could not fully fathom yourself, you would have become aware of the God who made you. 11. Since your soul sees everything through your flesh, you do not see your soul. But if [for the sake of the discussion] you see your soul, tell me of what sort it is or how large: 12 whether square or round; whether smooth or rough; whether hot or cold; whether of any color, or lacking all color. I see, you fail to show me of what sort your soul is; you cannot. 13. Behold, your soul is immortal, and it gives life to your mortal flesh. Your soul, I say, is immortal from two standpoints. If it believes, it is immortal for living; if it does not believe, it is immortal for punishment. 14. We believe, therefore, that God is immortal and invisible. – Quodvultdeus of Carthage, THE SECOND HOMILY ON THE CREED, chapter 3

Asterius (380-390 AD):

Others again, according to common report are lovers of like vanity; but having cherished wickedness to a greater degree, they have not restricted their foolish invention even to the things already mentioned; but having found some idle and extravagant style of weaving, which by the twining of the warp and the woof, produces the effect of a picture, and imprints upon their robes the forms of all creatures, they artfully produce, both for themselves and for their wives and children, clothing beflowered and wrought with ten thousand objects. Thenceforth they become self-confident. They no longer engage in serious business; from the vastness of their wealth they misuse life, by not using it; they act contrary to Paul and contend against the divinely inspired voices, not by words, but by deeds. For what he by word forbade, these men by their deeds support and confirm. When, therefore, they dress themselves and appear in public, they look like pictured walls in the eyes of those that meet them. And perhaps even the children surround them, smiling to one another and pointing out with the finger the picture on the garment; and walk along after them, following them for a long time. On these garments are lions and leopards; bears and bulls and dogs; woods and rocks and hunters; and all attempts to imitate nature by painting. For it was necessary, as it seems, to adorn not only their houses, but finally also their tunics and their mantles.

But such rich men and women as are more pious, have gathered up the gospel history and turned it over to the weavers; I mean Christ himself with all the disciples, and each of the miracles, as recorded in the Gospel. You may see the wedding of Galilee, and the water-pots; the paralytic carrying his bed on his shoulders; the blind man being healed with the clay; the woman with the bloody issue, taking hold of the border of the garment; the sinful woman falling at the feet of Jesus; Lazarus returning to life from the grave. In doing this they consider that they are acting piously and are clad in garments pleasing to God. But if they take my advice let them sell those clothes and honor the living image of God. Do not picture Christ on your garments. It is enough that he once suffered the humiliation of dwelling in a human body which of his own accord he assumed for our sakes. So, not upon your robes but upon your soul carry about his image.

Do not portray the paralytic on your garments, but seek out him that lies sick. Do not tell continually the story of the woman with the bloody issue, but have pity on the straitened widow. Do not contemplate the sinful woman kneeling before the Lord, but, with contrition for your own faults, shed copious tears. Do not sketch Lazarus rising from the dead, but see to it that you attain to the resurrection of the just. Do not carry the blind man about on your clothing, but by your good deeds comfort the living, who has been deprived of sight. Do not paint to the life the baskets of fragments that remained, but feed the hungry. Do not carry upon your mantles the water-pots which were filled in Cana of Galilee, but give the thirsty drink. Thus we have profited by the magnificent raiment of the rich man. – Asterius (380-390 AD), sermon 1, on Lazarus and the Rich man

Thus, in his opening words, God seals the descendants with the names of the righteous fathers like a signet—knowing it is good and beneficial to be known from them. But as time went on, when the people rushed to insult their benefactor and to despise their Savior, and they stumbled into the idol-making of the calf and bowed to a lifeless head, losing their living, rational judgment…. – Asterius (380-390 AD), Sermon 10.16.2

Gaudentius of Brescia (ca. 387-410):

But now let us see what, in an allegorical sense, those six stone water jars signify among the Gentiles, each holding two or three measures. In every person, six things are numbered: the sight of the eyes, the hearing of the ears, the smell of the nostrils, the speech of the mouth, the touch of the hands, and the movement of the feet. All these, when we were Gentiles, were as stone and dead within us—as the holy Prophet David declares with indignation: “The idols of the Gentiles are silver and gold” (Psalm 113). In his zeal, the Prophet passed over baser metals in silence, that by condemning even the precious ones more severely, he might all the more include the vile. Thus let us declare in what sense the idols of the Gentiles are reproved—though they had wealthy craftsmen to make them: “They are insensible metals,” he says, “silver and gold, the work of human hands. They have mouths, and do not speak; they have eyes, and do not see; they have ears, and do not hear; they have noses, and do not smell; they have hands, and do not touch; they have feet, and do not walk” (Psalm 113). And what then? “Those who make them will become like them, and so will all who trust in them.” Therefore, while we trusted in idols, these six senses within us—according to the Prophet’s judgment—were dead and of stone, without proper function and without living movement. But when we turned from dead idols to the living God and believed, we were made alive again, hearing from Him: “Because I live, you also shall live” (John 14:19). And again: “I am the resurrection and the life; whoever believes in Me, though he were dead, shall live; and whoever lives,” that is, whoever already believes, “if he continues believing to the end, shall never die” (John 11). – Gaudentius of Brescia, Sermon 9

Yet God also commands this: that if anyone in the first month is unclean by reason of a dead body—that is, defiled by the touch of death—or if he is on a distant journey outside the chosen place of sacrifice in Jerusalem and cannot celebrate the Pasch, he shall celebrate it in the second month. For God foresaw that the nations of the Gentiles, then still defiled by the idols of dead men and dwelling far from the holy place of the Church—that is, we who were far off and have been brought near by the blood of Christ (Ephesians 2:13)—would one day receive this grace: that if in the first month the Lord’s Day and the proper number of the moon do not coincide, we may celebrate in the second month. – Gaudentius of Brescia, Sermon 1

Again, the Lord laments over her through the Prophet, saying: “Have you seen what the faithless house of Israel has done to Me? She has gone up on every high mountain and under every green tree, and there has played the harlot with idols; she has committed adultery with wood and stone. And I said, after she had done all these things, Return to Me—but she did not return. So I cast her off and gave her a bill of divorce.” (Jeremiah 3) – Gaudentius of Brescia, Sermon 8

Yesterday, we explained to your charity, from the Gospel reading which declares that our Savior made water into wine at a wedding, first according to the historical account — why He deigned to go there; and then according to the spiritual meaning of the heavenly mystery — what is meant by “the day,” and which was the first day, which the second, which the third; what the purpose of the wedding was, who that Bridegroom was, who the Bride, what the place was where those nuptials took place, and why it is said that they were not the first weddings; and also why the Mother of the Lord Jesus was said to have been there; then, why the Bridegroom Himself was invited to the wedding, and by whom; and how the disciples were also invited together with Him; next, what that wine was which they did not have, and what the lack of the nuptial wine signified; and how, after the Jewish people were rejected because of the adultery of idolatry, the Church of the Gentiles was joined to divine love.

Therefore, most beloved, we must carefully guard ourselves in every way, lest we again be defiled by any contagion of idolatry, and so deserve not only to be rejected, but to be condemned forever. For, “If anyone violates the temple of God, God will destroy him” (1 Corinthians 3:17). For the Apostle says, “The temple of God is holy, which temple you are.” Take diligent care, lest as the serpent deceived Eve by his cunning, your minds be corrupted from the chastity that is in Christ Jesus (2 Corinthians 11:3), as the same most blessed Paul warns; and lest we be cast away by Him who loved us and gave the pledge of the Holy Spirit in our hearts. Let us therefore hold fast to the grace of the Holy Spirit, poured out in rich measure by the gift of the heavenly Bridegroom, lest we return to our former poverty. – Gaudentius of Brescia, Sermon 9

But consider why the devil is called the prince of this world. He is called the prince of this world by usurpation, not by nature. For by seducing the human race to abandon God and to worship him—the devil—through man-made idols, he violently seized power and exercised tyranny, so that when the true Prince came, the world, blinded by the devil’s deceit, did not recognize Him. For, as the Evangelist testifies, “He was in the world, and the world was made through Him, and the world did not know Him. He came unto His own, and His own received Him not” (John 1). Therefore the Lord allowed Himself to be judged by the judgment of this world, that He might cast down and expel this enemy of mankind—since to cast down and to cast out mean the same thing. – Gaudentius of Brescia, Sermon 12

But these Christian men, admirable and steadfast, not only scorned the venomous flatteries of this deceitful tempter with steadfast hearts, but refuted them with a fierce and burning reply: “You most wicked of all men,” they said, “how dare you rebel against God and seek by treacherous words to ensnare His servants? Why do you strive to draw us from the worship of the true and living God to the lifeless idols of demons? Why do you seek, by the empty promises of earthly honors and the illusions of perishable things, to corrupt our minds and draw them away from the strength of heavenly faith? We abhor gifts that bring the loss of salvation; we reject honors that rob us of eternal glory; we renounce the friendship of kings who would separate us from the love of God; and we despise even this temporal life of the body, which, if kept at the cost of faith, destroys the soul. Finally, we are not terrified even by your present torments.” – Gaudentius of Brescia, Sermon 17

Therefore Isaiah the prophet bears witness concerning this remnant of the Lord and the mercy of God, saying: “Unless the Lord of Hosts had left us a seed, we would have been like Sodom, and become like Gomorrah” (Isaiah 1). And now, you neophytes, who have been invited to the banquet of this blessed and spiritual Passover, take heed that you keep your souls pure from every defilement of foods tainted by pagan superstition. It is not enough, however, for a Christian merely to guard his life from the deadly food of demons; he must also flee from every abomination of the Gentiles and from all the paths of idolatry, as from the poisons of the serpent, the devil. For the parts and branches of idolatry are sorcery, incantations, enchantments, vain superstitions, divinations, lots, and all forms of omens, as well as the parentalia—those feasts of the dead from which the evil root of idolatry first sprang. For it was for the sake of their gluttony that men first began to prepare meals for the dead—meals which they themselves would eat; and from this they later dared to offer sacrilegious sacrifices to them. Yet even those who still perform these parentalia do not truly offer gifts to the dead, when with trembling, drunken hands they pour out wine upon tombs and mutter that the spirits of the dead thirst for drink. Beware, I beg you, of all these things—lest God, angered against those who despise Him and refuse His rule, hand them over to the tormentors of hell, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth (Matthew 8; Luke 13). Keep, O neophytes, the adornment of saving grace! Be sober in all things, lest, through drunkenness, you lose what you have received. Be diligent in coming together at the Church; devote yourselves watchfully with us to prayers, hymns, psalms, and spiritual songs. Let these be the works of your leisure, that by faithfully rendering such service to Christ the Lord, you may receive from Him the reward of eternal life. Let your feasts, therefore, be sober; your beds, chaste; your minds, humble; your speech, gentle; and your walk, meek. Pray that God may preserve in you the blessings of His grace, and that your faith may grow more and more through the bounty of Christ our Lord and Savior, to whom belong one power and the same divinity with the Father and with the Holy Spirit, before all ages, now, and forever, and unto all ages of ages. Amen. – Gaudentius of Brescia, Sermon 4

Gregory of Elvira (died 392 AD):

We must not pass over in silence why King Nebuchadnezzar commanded that this statue be worshiped. What profit, what honor, or what glory was he to gain if men bowed down to this image? For if, beyond the power of his kingdom, he desired still greater glory, he would have commanded that he himself be worshiped, not that image which had neither sight, nor hearing, nor movement, nor any sense of its own. But this image clearly prefigured the Antichrist. Therefore it was not so much by the will of King Nebuchadnezzar as by the command of the devil, who ruled within him, that it was made. Nebuchadnezzar himself did not know what he was doing. It was made of gold because that same Antichrist will be a most powerful ruler of this world. For after defeating the ten Roman kings who will exist in that time—those revealed in Daniel’s vision as the ten horns—he alone will hold dominion over the entire world….. But now, dearest brothers, it is enough to have said a little about many things, so that you may know by what mystery of iniquity the devil, through Nebuchadnezzar, made that image which the three faithful youths refused to worship—lest they should seem to adore the Antichrist, whose image it was. If those men, for whom Christ had not yet suffered, endured such things for God and for the sacred Law, how much more ought we, for whom the Son of God deigned to be born in the flesh and to suffer, and by the price of his blood delivered us from death and made us debtors of his great benefits, bear all kinds of pain with a steadfast heart for the name of Christ! For he who has once been set free by the hand of Christ does not submit again to tyrannical slavery. — Gregory of Elvira, Tractatvs Origenis XVIII.12-13, 20, 350 AD (Corpvs Christianorvm Series Latina LXIX)

Maximus of Turin (380 – 465 AD):

Now as for the idols and the elements which the pagans imagine to be gods—listen briefly, brothers, to our blessed prophet as he mocks these pagans for their empty delusions, saying: “The idols of the nations are silver and gold, the work of human hands. They have mouths, but do not speak; they have eyes, but do not see; they have ears, but do not hear,” and so on (Psalm 115:4–7). I ask you, pagan: would you wish to become like the gods you worship—without soul, without sense, without movement, without any living intelligence? If such a condition is a curse, then cease to worship beings whose likeness you are drawn into, and whose cult brings you to their level. But the pagans say: “We worship and honor the sun and the moon, the stars, and all the elements.” To them again it is answered in Scripture: “All men are vain in whom there is no knowledge of God; and from the good things that are seen they were unable to know Him who is. Not by considering the works did they recognize the Artificer, but they supposed that fire, or wind, or swift air, or the circle of the stars, or the great water, or the sun or the moon, were gods” (Wisdom 13:1–2). If they judged these things to be gods because of their beauty, let them know how much more beautiful is the Lord—for it is the Creator of beauty who made them all. Or if they marvel at the power and operations of created things, let them understand from those very works that He who established them in such strength is stronger than they. — Maximus of Turin, Against the Pagans, Patrologia Latina 57.781-794A

The pagans say, therefore, that all things happen by fate, and that, concerning the entire human race, everything is fixed and immovable once fate has decreed it; and that prayers and supplications have no power at all. To such men we answer first with a brief word—cutting down and uprooting their entire forest of error with a single plow of faith and unshakable truth: If prayers and supplications have no power, O pagans, and if all is fixed, as you say, by fate or decree, then why do you worship your gods and goddesses? Why do you offer sacrifices to idols? Why prayers, incense, victims, and all your gifts in the temples—if everything is fixed and decreed, and nothing is granted or obtained through prayer or petition? Why, then, do you supplicate your gods at all? — Maximus of Turin, Against the Pagans, Patrologia Latina 57.781-794A

It is clear that you are carnal rather than spiritual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . religion . . . . . handed down to you from ancient books . . . . . you delight in lights with incense, in paintings and images and your carved figures. Why is it that today, in the theaters, at your own applauding shouts, the most shameless actors portray that same impudent Venus, and adulterous Mars, and Jupiter—the prince of vices—descending to earthly lusts, with his thunderbolts (that is, by magical delusions) made to turn white, and now as a golden shower pouring down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “For all who sinned without the Law will perish without the Law, and all who sinned under the Law will be judged by the Law” (Romans 2:12). And the pagans are not ashamed to claim that so many gods and goddesses were born—Saturn begetting Jupiter and the rest. But if the gods were born then, why are they not born today? Unless perhaps—as the holy Cyprian again said—either Jupiter has grown old, or Juno has ceased from childbirth. — Maximus of Turin, Against the Pagans, Patrologia Latina 57.781-794A

For their statues and idols are covered with webs by spiders, bored through by moths or worms, inhabited by mice, and trampled by flies; nor do they defend themselves from fire or rain, nor do they avenge themselves upon robbers or thieves. And therefore St Cyprian rightly said to the pagan Demetrianus: “Be ashamed to worship those whom you yourself protect; be ashamed to hope for help from those whom you guard.” For how could they bestow anything upon their worshipers, when they cannot avenge themselves upon those who refuse to worship them? Just as they are unaware of the honor by which they are worshiped, so they do not feel the harm by which they are injured. — Maximus of Turin, Against the Pagans, Patrologia Latina 57.781-794A

Peter Chrysologus (406-450 AD):

“As evening came, however, they brought him many who were possessed by demons.” In the evening, that is, in this last age the faithful and dedicated devotion of the apostles presents us gentiles to the Lord, and demons are expelled who used to rule over us by our worship of idols. Listen to the prophet: “All the gods of the gentiles are demons.” Ignorant of the one God we were paying homage to innumerable gods by sacrilegious and the most abject slavery. And he cast the spirits out with a word, since Christ came to us not with his flesh, but with his word. When, therefore, faith came “by hearing, and hearing through the word,” he freed us from slavery to demons, and he deposed the demons from their wicked tyranny and made them captive. This is the reason why the demons are tormented under our hands and at our orders, since they used to subject us to wood, enslave us to stone, and torture us daily with groundless fear through useless images. Only now, brothers, take care that faithlessness does not call us back to enslavement to them. – Peter Chrysologus, Sermon 18

“Blessed is the man who hath not walked in the counsel of the ungodly.” (Psalm 1:1) The wicked man went away, away from himself when he receded from God; neither does he delay about counsel who lets his mind wander in evil thoughts. At one moment he is raised up to the sky, at another he is cast back to earth. He is tossed about on the seas, lifted aloft on the billows, plunged into the troughs. And since his own thoughts stagger as if he were drunk, he takes account, not of himself, but of the sky. He who thinks that he knows everything does not know himself. For, if he knew himself, he would never adore the sky, the sun, the moon, bits of wood, or stones. All these have been given to him, subjected to his use. But he adores the stone and serves the wood, and he has disdained to serve the true and living God. — Peter Chrysologus, Sermon 44

The unhappy and detestable wickedness of the Jewish mind, always more ready to argue than to believe, is anxiously aroused by the divine miracles, not to faith, but to slander, as if it even deserved to hear such great wisdom! But maliciously curious or complaining concerning where everything comes from, suspicious of good things, very easygoing about harmful ones, it despises the teaching about which it is amazed; it disregards the precepts that it approves, it is hesitant toward God but very well disposed towards idols, clever in divine matters, completely uninhibited when it comes to wood and stones, rebellious toward the prophets, opposed to the truth, ruinously attached to soothsaying and lies. – Peter Chrysologus, Sermon 48, chapter 3

“Come,” he says, “let us adore him and fall prostrate before him, and weep in the presence of God who made us.” He had said: Come, let us rejoice; but here the prophet wants us with him to shed his tears of joy, because just as tears are always produced by great grief, so also they are produced by joy; tears, in any event, expose and attest to the internal disposition of the heart. So he wants us who used to bow down before stones and wood, now that the true God is finally known, to adore, fall prostrate before him, and repay with tears and with continual, dutiful worship what we neglected for such a very long time. – Peter Chrysologus, Sermon 46, chapter 7

“I believe in God.” Your soul, which for a long time earlier was addressing God, but did not know it; which was calling upon God, but was unaware of it—it certainly was unaware of Him whom it was so eagerly seeking through stones and wood— therefore, let it now say, let it say: I believe in God the Almighty Father. For the long time when it used to look upon rocks, it did not see the One in whom to place its trust. And He is truly God who granted you to see by not seeing, while the pagan gods, by contrast, had made you not see by seeing. – Peter Chrysologus, Sermon 62, chapter 5

Yet, in all these wonders which we mentioned, when the flame of divine love enkindles human hearts, and the intoxication of the love of God overflows into men’s senses, they begin, with impaired mind, to want to see God with their bodily eyes. How could the restricted human sight take in God whom the world does not contain? The faculties of love give no second thought to what will be, what ought to be, or what can be. Love has not judgment, heeds not reason, knows not measure. Love accepts no solace because the object it desires is impossible, nor cure because the object is difficult.

Love cannot stand not to see what it loves. That is why all the saints deemed everything they merited of little worth if they should not see the Lord. And truly, brethren, how will one render homage in return for benefits received if one does not see the giver of the benefits? Or how will one believe that he is loved by God if he does not merit the vision of Him? This is why love which longs to see God, even if it lacks judgment, does have the spirit of devotion. This is why Moses dares to say: ‘If I have found favor in thy sight, show me thy face.’ll This is why another man says: ‘Show us thy face.’ Finally, this is why the very Gentiles fashioned idols. In their errors they wanted to see with their eyes what they were worshiping, the true temple, God’s law, the rightly appointed kings, and their ancestral rites. Consequently, the whole people thus delivered over to error became a source of scandal like that given, according to the Apostle, when a man eats, as harmlesss to his own conscience, the flesh of animals which were sacrificed to idols. He thinks that through such conduct he may well bring contempt upon the inanimate stones and wooden gods who can neither sanctify nor profane anything. But, what he thinks is an example of his faith becomes an occasion of error for uninstructed men, for its leads them not to contempt but to worship, and it causes the meal to appear to be a banquet of religious honor to those very inanimate gods whom he is intentionally diminishing by this ridicule. Consequently, the Apostle wisely concludes and explains: ‘And through thy “knowledge” the weak one will perish, the brother for whom Christ died.’

Therefore, God, aware that men were suffering torture and weariness from their longing to see Him, chose as a means to make Himself visible something which was to be great to the dwellers of earth and by no means small to the dwellers in heaven. For, could something which God made like Himself on earth fail to be deemed honorable in heaven? ‘Let us make mankind in our image and likeness,’ Scripture says. What perfect devotion owes to a king it owes also to his picture. If God had assumed an angelic nature from heaven, He still would be invisible. If from the earth He had assumed something less than human nature, He would have suffered an insult to His divinity, and He would have depressed, not elevated, man. Therefore, most dearly beloved, let no one deem it an insult to God if God came to men through a man, and assumed something from ourselves, in order to be seen by us – He who lives and reigns as God now, and through all the ages of ages. Amen. – Peter Chrysologus, Sermon 146

Jeroboam raised up a scandal. He set up as gods for the people golden calves – pitiful images – to keep them from seeking the living God…. The third kind of scandal is that which our senses bring forth to us, when we are deceived by our eyes, beguiled by our hearing, taken in by an odor, corrupted through our taste. For example, Eve was harmed thus by the sight and taste of the forbidden, deadly food. ‘Now the woman saw that the tree was good for food, pleasing to the eyes, and delightful to behold.’  Wisely, therefore, did the Lord add that our very senses give scandal, by saying: ‘If thy eye is an occasion of sin to thee, or thy hand, cut it off, and cast it from thee; it is better for thee without an eye and a hand to enter into life than with thy whole body to go into hell.’ The Lord here commanded us to cut away our faults and vices, not our members. Nevertheless, if Eve, the mother of the human race, had done just what He ordered, she would have done better by coming to life without an eye and a hand, rather than have plunged her entire posterity into a pitiful death!

Therefore, brethren, we should be careful neither to give scandal to others nor to take it ourselves when another gives it. It is scandal that troubles the senses, perturbs the mind, confuses our judgment otherwise sharp. It is a scandal that changed an angel into the Devil, an Apostle into a traitor; that brought sin into the world and allured man to death. Hear the Lord saying: ‘Woe to the world because of scandals!’ Scandal tempts the saints, fatigues the cautious, throws down the incautious, disturbs all things, confuses all men. It is true that in this present passage the Lord is talking about the scandal of His Passion, and pointing out Judas through whose agency came the very scandal of scandals. Nevertheless, He uttered a warning to keep anyone else from coming to this, by saying: ‘It is impossible that scandals should not come; but woe to him through whom they come It were good for him if a millstone were hung about his neck and he were thrown into the sea, rather than that he should cause one of these little ones to sin.

Why not an ordinary stone, but a millstone? Because, while a millstone is grinding the grain, and pouring out the flour, and separating the bran from the meal, it is simultaneously furnishing bread to those who are dutifully toiling. Rightly, therefore, is a millstone tied to the neck of the man who chooses to be a minister of scandal rather than of peace, that the very same thing which should have drawn him to life may drag him down to death. For, he has changed those senses given to aid him toward life into a stumbling block bringing death. Then they persuaded him to see something else, and hear, feel and relish something else than was in Christ and in His saving knowledge. In this way he has encompassed the cornerstone, the stone symbolizing help, the stone cut out without hands, that is, Christ, and he has turned it into a stumbling-block for the weak. Consequently, he was preparing, not the bread of life, but that of tears and sorrow according to the testimony of the Prophet: ‘You that eat the bread of sorrow.’ Therefore, it is well for him, as Scripture elsewhere says, ‘To have a great millstone hung around his neck.’ Let him suffer for his punishment from that same place where he got his frame of mind. Let him be like the stupid beasts, since he did not care to be compared with men who relish heavenly things. – Peter Chrysologus, Sermon 35

Thus he deceived Eve with a lie, thus he ensnared Judas with greed, thus he made the Jews blind with envy, thus he engulfed the pagans in the darkness of the error of idolatry, thus he has confused peoples with his display of material extravagance…. – Peter Chrysologus, Sermon 105, chapter 3

[Speaking about Christians possessing pagan idols]: The prophet’s curse is fulfilled: “May those who make them become like them, as well as all those who trust in them.” And this is what Christians gaze at, what Christians look forward to, what they allow into their homes, what Christians welcome in their homes, while paying no heed to what the Apostle said: “That those who do such things deserve death.” … Listen to the rest of the verse: “Not only those who do them but also those who approve of those who do them.” In short, I beseech you, in the midst of evils cease doing evil. Believe me, believe me, I tell you, they would fade away to nothing if fake Christians were not going over to them. Flee these things, keep yourselves and your homes off-limits to them, because God, who sees what is hidden, surely cannot be deceived out in the open. “Leave, leave their midst,” just as the prophet said, “and be separated from them, and touch nothing unclean”; so that at long last the ones who up until now have been deceived because we played along with them may return to their senses because of our zeal. And so, flee from these demonic activities, if you desire to hear about divine ones. – Peter Chrysologus, Sermon 155A, chapter 2-3

So as to be a slave to idols, the world waged hostilities on its Author; and rather than obey the one true God, it preferred being under the power of innumerable monstrosities; and in its hatred for the Creator it placed high value on loving creatures that were worthless and subjected to itself, producing what derived not from sound judgment but from madness. The cry of the breast torn to pieces by its slavery to deadly sacrifices struck at heaven, the very air was dampened by the sacrilegious libations of blood, and the sun’s brightness was darkened by the smoke coming from the altars, such that with this kind of worship it was no longer the Creator, but creation itself that was bearing its own pain and complaining about the harm being done to it. Nevertheless, by this impiety the piety of the unconquered Creator was not conquered, because the love of the Craftsman for his work was stronger than the unholy offense, and his predilection for his handiwork caused him to ignore such human deeds, since he knew that it was more glorious to forgive than to punish; to repair what was ruined rather than to preserve what was made; and he knew that in this way he would be believed to be the Author of the universe when creation saw him restoring the universe. This is why God enters the world and is mingled both with the earth and with flesh; he becomes man, he enters the servile condition of humanity, in order to establish for the world that Christ is God by his miracles, and that he is man by his obedience and by his sufferings. – Peter Chrysologus, Sermon 178, chapters 3-4

All things that have been created by God are good for us, very good indeed, as Scripture says: “And God saw all the things that he made, and they were very good.” Therefore, all things that have been created by God are good, very good indeed. But between the vices and the virtues there are intermediate goods such that while the knowledgeable take from them material for teaching, the ignorant find there a cause for error. For the wise certainly come to know the Creator from contemplating creation; the foolish, while they think that mere creatures are the creators, cannot know the Creator. That is why the gentiles made the sun, the moon, the stars, gold, stones, wood into gods for themselves, things which Christians know have been assigned to serve them. – Peter Chrysologus, Sermon 89, chapter 1

Prudentius (348 – 413 AD):

But Thou dost make twofold provision for our nurture; our bodies and our souls with two several kinds of sustenance Thou dost strengthen and invigorate. Thus once Thy renowned power revived a man set amid rough-voiced lions, “with a meal that came to him.” Because he abominated a god cast in metal and thought it sin to bow his head before a material image of polished bronze, the people of fell Babylon and their king [Nebuchadnezzar] had exposed him to death, giving him over to the wild beasts to be devoured forthwith by their cruel jaws. How safe always are goodness and faith! – Prudentius, The Daily Round IV, The Hymn After Meat

Learn from thy ills, poor creature, by whose vengeance it is that vain superstition and carnal keeping of the law are punished, whose avenging power it is that tramples upon thee. Do not Solomon’s stones, that were built up by hand, lie in ruins, his metal-work destroyed? That famous temple lies in ruins. And why? Because it was a craftsman’s perishable hand that framed that perishable work of stone. Justly has it perished and now lies in ruins, since every work of art turns again to nothingness; that which admits of being made is bound one day to perish. If on the other hand thou wouldst learn what our temple is, it is one that no workman built up piece by piece with the skill of his craft, no fabric of hewn fir or pine, nor ever rose out of quarried marble. It is one whose mass does not rest high up on pillars, supported with delicate skill on curving arches. It is made from the Word of the Lord; not his loud-sounding voice, but his Word, which ever lived. The Word was made flesh. This is the temple that is everlasting and without end; this is the temple thou hast attacked, seeking to take it with scourge and cross and gall. – Prudentius, On The Divinity of Christ, chapter 1

Theodore of Mopsuestia (350 – 428 AD):

Attend to the sound of my prayer (v. 2). This request, too, like the one above, is expressed in a corporeal manner. “My king and my God.” (Psalm 5:2). He wants to portray the people as corrected by the chastisements of the captivity of Babylon, abandoning the idols and turning back to God, like someone who first erred and then bursting out in joy at the knowledge of the truth and saying “My king and God” (Psalm 5:2)—that is, Respond to me as I listen, accept what I am obliged to mention, you who are truly my king and God; the idols were not gods, I was wrong when I believed they were gods. He therefore goes on, in the same vein, “Because I shall pray to you, Lord:” (Psalm 5:2) hence, It behooves me to listen without pretense, since it is you I shall always in the future implore, no longer addressing requests to images (simulacra). Now, in this he suggests that before the time of their captivity they were negligent in offering supplications to God. – Theodore of Mopsuestia, Commentary on Psalms 1-81, On Psalm 5 (Robert C. Hill translation)

Since he reproached him with the offense to the people, the city and the Temple in this, he logically goes on, “What use is their carving an idol? They made a cast image of it, a figment of their imagination, because the artisan trusted in his artefact to make idols that are speechless (v.18):” you neglected the true God, and had no qualms about sinning against what belonged to him; you thought you would gain some benefit from the idols, and by some erroneous imagining you were zealous about worshiping something made by human hands, believing you would gain some benefit from mute idols formed by human hands. He then proceeds logically, Woe to the one who says to the wood, Wake up, arise, and to the stone, Up you get. It is a figment of your imagination, it is gold and silver plating, and there is no breath of life in it. But the Lord is in his holy Temple, let all the earth be reverent before him (vv.19–20): how, then, are you not the most pitiable person to be conversing with wood that has to be set upright, and looking for help from an idol lifted to its feet, made from material things and yet making an imaginary claim on the onlooker’s regard, but bereft of any power of life? It would, in fact, be better for you, on the one hand, to despise such things and give them no importance, and, on the other, to ponder the greatness of God, who has the dwelling of the heavens as an awesome and ineffable temple, and occupies a Temple also on earth with a view to the needs of human beings. On this Temple not only you but also all people throughout the world should set their eyes with great respect, and retain the thought of it within themselves. – Theodore of Mopsuestia, Commentary on Habakkuk, chapter 2

1: 8b-10 “… so that we do not have the need to say anything. For they proclaim of us what sort of entrance we had to you and how you turned to the Lord from idols to serve the living and true God and to await his Son from the heavens, whom he raised from the dead, Jesus, who will rescue us from the wrath to come.” [In other words, Paul says] “For we do not need to say anything about you, wherever we go, because everyone has come to know what you have done, so that there is no envy of those who report how we were quickly received by you (for this is what he means by what sort of entrance we had to you) and how, when our teachings found favor, you indeed left the worship (cultura) of images (simulacrorum) behind, and you recognized as your Lord the one who both truly lives and is the true God. And you also believed in what was told you about Jesus and that God raised him from the dead so that all of us who believe in him might be freed from the punishment we expected and that he will come from heaven to bestow all benefits on us.” And he rightly spoke first of his coming from heaven, then of the resurrection – even though, of course, his coming from heaven is plainly second in order – because the former was especially fitting to confirm faith, since he will appear with great glory from heaven at the end of the age. And it must be noted that in the abandonment (abdicatione) of images (simulacra) he asserted that God is both living and true, so that by contrast he might demonstrate that the images are of gods neither living nor true but are only said to be gods by a false name. Therefore, whenever we find this word, it is fitting we should know that it cannot be said of the Father to the exclusion of the Son, nor of the Son to the exclusion of the Father, but that it is believed by all godly people that both the Father and the Son alike are God. – Theodore of Mopsuestia, Commentary on 1 Thessalonians 1:8-10

• Notice that the Latin translator of Theodore understands him to be saying Christians have abandoned the worship of images in general, not just certain images. And again, we refuse to worship images because they are lifeless, not because they depict the wrong thing. There is no mention of worshiping approved lifeless images.

Every sacrament consists in the representation of unseen and unspeakable things through signs and emblems. Such things require explanation and interpretation, for the sake of the person who draws nigh unto the sacrament, so that he might know its power. If it only consisted of the (visible) elements themselves, words would have been useless, as sight itself would have been able to show us one by one all the happenings that take place, but since a sacrament contains the signs of things that take place or have already taken place, words are needed to explain the power of signs and mysteries. The Jews performed their service for the heavenly things as in signs and shadows, because the law only contained the shadow of good things to come, and not the very image of the things, as the blessed Paul said . A shadow implies the proximity of a body, as it cannot exist without a body, but it does not represent the body which it reflects in the same way as it happens in an image. When we look at an image we recognise the person who is represented in it — if we knew that person beforehand — on account of the accurately drawn picture, but we are never able to recognise a man represented only by his shadow, as this shadow has no likeness whatever to the real body from which it emanates. All things of the law were similar to this. They were only a shadow of the heavenly things, as the Apostle said. You must now learn the nature of this shadow. – Theodore of Mopsuestia, On Baptism, chapter 2

“The idols of the nations are silver and gold” (Psalm 135:15). From the praise of the Almighty he passes to the rebuke of idols, and by describing their worthlessness he exalts the greatness of the Godhead, so as to make good his earlier statement: “Our Lord is above all gods” (Psalm 135:5). “The works of the hands … they do not see” (Psalm 135:16). Idols are fashioned in our likeness, so that a human image may dignify lifeless and shapeless matter. — Theodore of Mopsuestia, Commentary on Psalms – CORPVS CHRISTIANORVM Series Latina volume LXXXVIII A – page 378

John Cassian (360-435 AD):

Among the sublime customs of the anchorites which by God’s help have been set forth although in plain and unadorned style, the course of our narration compels us to insert and find a place for something, which may seem so to speak to cause a blemish on a fair body: although I have no doubt that by it no small instruction on the image of Almighty God of which we read in Genesis will be conferred on some of the simpler sort, especially when the grounds are considered of a doctrine so important that men cannot be ignorant of it without terrible blasphemy and serious harm to the Catholic faith. – John Cassian, Conference 10, chapter 1

Among those then who were caught by this mistaken notion was one named Sarapion, a man of long-standing strictness of life, and one who was altogether perfect in actual discipline, whose ignorance with regard to the view of the doctrine first mentioned was so far a stumbling block to all who held the true faith, as he himself outstripped almost all the monks both in the merits of his life and in the length of time (he had been there). And when this man could not be brought back to the way of the right faith by many exhortations of the holy presbyter Paphnutius, because this view seemed to him a novelty, and one that was not ever known to or handed down by his predecessors, it chanced that a certain deacon, a man of very great learning, named Photinus, arrived from the region of Cappadocia with the desire of visiting the brethren living in the same desert: whom the blessed Paphnutius received with the warmest welcome, and in order to confirm the faith which had been stated in the letters of the aforesaid Bishop, placed him in the midst and asked him before all the brethren how the Catholic Churches throughout the East interpreted the passage in Genesis where it says Let us make man after our image and likeness (Genesis 1:26). And when he explained that the image and likeness of God was taken by all the leaders of the churches not according to the base sound of the letters, but spiritually, and supported this very fully and by many passages of Scripture, and showed that nothing of this sort could happen to that infinite and incomprehensible and invisible glory, so that it could be comprised in a human form and likeness, since its nature is incorporeal and uncompounded and simple, and what can neither be apprehended by the eyes nor conceived by the mind, at length the old man was shaken by the numerous and very weighty assertions of this most learned man, and was drawn to the faith of the Catholic tradition. And when both Abbot Paphnutius and all of us were filled with intense delight at his adhesion, for this reason; viz., that the Lord had not permitted a man of such age and crowned with such virtues, and one who erred only from ignorance and rustic simplicity, to wander from the path of the right faith up to the very last, and when we arose to give thanks, and were all together offering up our prayers to the Lord, the old man was so bewildered in mind during his prayer because he felt that the Anthropomorphic image of the Godhead which he used to set before himself in prayer, was banished from his heart, that on a sudden he burst into a flood of bitter tears and continual sobs, and cast himself down on the ground and exclaimed with strong groanings: “Alas! Wretched man that I am! They have taken away my God from me, and I have now none to lay hold of; and whom to worship and address I know not.” By which scene we were terribly disturbed, and moreover with the effect of the former Conference still remaining in our hearts, we returned to Abbot Isaac, whom when we saw close at hand, we addressed with these words. – John Cassian, Conference 10, chapter 3

Isaac: We need not be surprised that a really simple man who had never received any instruction on the substance and nature of the Godhead could still be entangled and deceived by an error of simplicity and the habit of a longstanding mistake, and (to speak more truly) continue in the original error which is brought about, not as you suppose by a new illusion of the demons, but by the ignorance of the ancient heathen world, while in accordance with the custom of that erroneous notion, by which they used to worship devils formed in the figure of men, they even now think that the incomprehensible and ineffable glory of the true Deity should be worshipped under the limitations of some figure, as they believe that they can grasp and hold nothing if they have not some image set before them, which they can continually address while they are at their devotions, and which they can carry about in their mind and have always fixed before their eyes. And against this mistake of theirs this text may be used: And they changed the glory of the incorruptible God into the likeness of the image of corruptible man (Romans 1:23). Jeremiah also says: My people have changed their glory for an idol (Jeremiah 2:11). Which error although by this its origin, of which we have spoken, it is engrained in the notions of some, yet none the less is it contracted in the hearts also of those who have never been stained with the superstition of the heathen world, under the color of this passage where it is said, “Let us make man after our image and our likeness” (Genesis 1:26), ignorance and simplicity being its authors, so that actually there has arisen owing to this hateful interpretation a heresy called that of the Anthropomorphites, which maintains with obstinate perverseness that the infinite and simple substance of the Godhead is fashioned in our lineaments and human configuration. Which however any one who has been taught the Catholic doctrine will abhor as heathenish blasphemy, and so will arrive at that perfectly pure condition in prayer which will not only not connect with its prayers any figure of the Godhead or bodily lineaments (which it is a sin even to speak of), but will not even allow in itself even the memory of a name, or the appearance of an action, or an outline of any character. – John Cassian, Conference 10, chapter 5

• John Cassian says the WHOLE CHURCH understands that praying to a visible image of the REAL God (not just false gods, like Zeus) is a violation of the second commandment, and that if someone were to make a human-shaped image of God and pray to it, they have changed the glory of the incorruptible God into the likeness of the image of corruptible man, and have changed the glory of God for an idol! That’s right, he considers even a picture of JESUS to be an idol if people pray to it!

For according to the measure of its purity, as I said in the former Conference, each mind is both raised and moulded in its prayers if it forsakes the consideration of earthly and material things so far as the condition of its purity may carry it forward, and enable it with the inner eyes of the soul to see Jesus either still in His humility and in the flesh, or glorified and coming in the glory of His Majesty: for those cannot see Jesus coming in His Kingdom who are still kept back in a sort of state of Jewish weakness, and cannot say with the Apostle: “And if we have known Christ after the flesh, yet now we know Him so no more” (2 Corinthians 5:16); but only those can look with purest eyes on His Godhead, who rise with Him from low and earthly works and thoughts and go apart in the lofty mountain of solitude which is free from the disturbance of all earthly thoughts and troubles, and secure from the interference of all sins, and being exalted by pure faith and the heights of virtue reveals the glory of His Face and the image of His splendour to those who are able to look on Him with pure eyes of the soul. But Jesus is seen as well by those who live in towns and villages and hamlets, i.e., who are occupied in practical affairs and works, but not with the same brightness with which He appeared to those who can go up with Him into the aforesaid mount of virtues, i.e., Peter, James, and John. For so in solitude He appeared to Moses and spoke with Elias. And as our Lord wished to establish this and to leave us examples of perfect purity, although He Himself, the very fount of inviolable sanctity, had no need of external help and the assistance of solitude in order to secure it (for the fullness of purity could not be soiled by any stain from crowds, nor could He be contaminated by intercourse with men, who cleanses and sanctifies all things that are polluted) yet still He retired into the mountain alone to pray, thus teaching us by the example of His retirement that if we too wish to approach God with a pure and spotless affection of heart, we should also retire from all the disturbance and confusion of crowds, so that while still living in the body we may manage in some degree to adapt ourselves to some likeness of that bliss which is promised hereafter to the saints, and that God may be to us all in all (1 Corinthians 15:28). – John Cassian, Conference 10, chapter 6

And so our mind will reach that incorruptible prayer to which in our former treatise, as the Lord vouchsafed to grant, the scheme of our Conference mounted, and this is not merely not engaged in gazing on any image, but is actually distinguished by the use of no words or utterances; but with the purpose of the mind all on fire, is produced through ecstasy of heart by some unaccountable keenness of spirit, and the mind being thus affected without the aid of the senses or any visible material pours it forth to God with groanings and sighs that cannot be uttered. – John Cassian, Conference 10, chapter 11

And so the wretched soul is agitated, and held fast, as it were, in a serpent’s toils, while it endeavours to add to that heap which it has unlawfully secured, by still more unlawful care, and itself gives birth to plagues which inflame it more sorely, and being entirely absorbed in the quest of gain, pays attention to nothing but how to get money with which to fly as quickly as possible from the discipline of the monastery, never keeping faith where there is a gleam of hope of money to be got. For this it shrinks not from the crime of lying, perjury, and theft, of breaking a promise, of giving way to injurious bursts of passion. If the man has dropped away at all from the hope of gain, he has no scruples about transgressing the bounds of humility, and through it all gold and the love of gain become to him his god, as the belly does to others. Wherefore the blessed Apostle, looking out on the deadly poison of this pest, not only says that it is a root of all kinds of evil, but also calls it the worship of idols, saying “And covetousness (which in Greek is called φιλαργυρία) which is the worship of idols.” You see then to what a downfall this madness step by step leads, so that by the voice of the Apostle it is actually declared to be the worship of idols and false gods, because passing over the image and likeness of God (which one who serves God with devotion ought to preserve undefiled in himself), it chooses to love and care for images stamped on gold instead of God. – John Cassian, The Twelve Books on the Institutes of the Cœnobia, and the Remedies for the Eight Prncipal Faults, book 7, chapter 7

Take away the uncleanness their blasphemy has brought on them, and purify with the fan of Your sacred cleansing Malachi 3:2-3 the souls that are plunged in stinking mud, so that the dens of thieves may become houses of prayer (Matthew 21:13); and that in those which are now, as is written, the dwellings where hedgehogs and monsters, and satyrs, and all kinds of strange creatures dwell, there the gifts of Your Holy Spirit, namely the beauty of faith and holiness may shine forth. And as once You destroyed idolatry and cast out images, and make shrines of virtue out of the temples of devils, and let into the dens of serpents and scorpions the rays of shining light, and make out of the dens of error and shame the homes of beauty and splendour, so do Thou pour upon all whose eyes the darkness of heretical obstinacy has blinded, the light of Your compassion and truth, that they may at length with clear and unveiled sight behold the great and life-giving mystery of Your Incarnation…. – John Cassian, On the Incarnation, Book VII, chapter 1

Cyril of Alexandria (376–444 AD):

“People who are deceived, in fact, if some fear alarms them, normally cling to altars, open up shrines, and cry aloud to the lifeless idols, Have mercy, save us, and you, stone, get up, as a god protect those venerating your power and opting to adore you. It is right, therefore, to say Woe to such people because it is to products of gold and silver, with no breath in them, that their devotees make such statements as would better be said to God, who dwells in heaven and has as his own temple the city above; the holy one dwells among holy people, and stays with those venerating him.” – Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on Habakkuk 2

“He had legislated, remember, through the wise Moses, ‘You shall not make gold and silver gods for yourself,’ and ‘You shall worship the Lord your God, and serve him alone.’ But in mockery of my Law, he says, you worshiped the works of your hands; and on seeing a golden heifer made of lifeless materials, you had no objections when the originator of the deception said, “These are your gods, Israel, who led you out of the land of Egypt.’” – Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on Amos 4

“God dismisses the praise given on instruments, disqualifying lifeless matter from offering praise, and transferring participation in such splendid commendation instead to those who give expression with pure minds, since such fine hymns of praise are pleasing to the Lord of all.” – Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on Amos 5

Now, the fact that God needs not lifeless matter but a spiritual array he suggests in saying, Mine is the silver and mine the gold, says the Lord almighty. It would be like saying, “Do not consider the temple inglorious because it happens to lack gold and silver and the splendor of wealth; I need nothing like that.” How so? “Mine is the silver and mine the gold, says the Lord almighty: I look rather for sincere worshipers; it is with the splendor of such people that I shall gild my Temple.” In other words, just as when he relieved Israel of the obligation of sacrifices according to the Law, he necessarily said, “I shall not accept calves from your house, or goats from your flocks, for all the beasts of the countryside, cattle on the mountains, and oxen are mine,” so too here he declines to accept adornment of a material kind, and seeks rather the spiritual kind, saying, Mine is the silver and mine the gold. In other words, I am content and satisfied, and have no need of any such thing; instead, let someone come who has an upright faith, is distinguished for ornaments of virtue, resplendent with love for me, pure in heart, poor in spirit, compassionate, and kind. When they assemble in my temple, in fact, that is, the Church, they will make it glorious, the cynosure of all eyes. – Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on Haggai 2

Instead, it was inevitable that, deprived as they were of the precious freedom from on high, longing for the pleasures of home, impoverished, subject to the whims of their oppressors, they would no longer be able to observe customary ways. Instead, in their grief, and carried away with their intolerable calamities, they condemned those who deceived them, since it was impossible for them to gain anything from people with vain hopes. They were no better off, in fact, either from Baal’s assistance—after all, what could voiceless wood do?—or from the heifers pondering some form of aid for them, since they were made of gold, “the work of human hands,” as Scripture says. – Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on Hosea 2

It is therefore appropriate to deplore heretics, who are hateful to God in directing their speech against God the Son and claiming he is created and actually inferior to the Father. They even, as it were, fashion an idol according to their own thinking, and bid it be adored; if the Son completely falls short of being by nature God, and is generated, and is adored by us and the holy angels, how is it that we do not openly worship creation, as the pagans do under the form of the sun, or some other created thing, fashioning the idol out of foolish and vain imagining? – Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on Zephaniah 1

Accordingly, we have become his people, after once being no people, only worshipers of stones; abominating the ancient and loathsome error, we have chosen him as our God, in truth and righteousness. Far from adhering to types and shadows, like those in love with the letter, we instead welcome into our mind and heart the splendor of the evangelical preaching and perform the true worship, and, holding fast the righteousness acceptable to him, we perform the worship in the spirit. “God is spirit,” as the Son himself says, remember, “and those who worship him must worship in spirit and in truth.” – Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on Zechariah 8

Now, the question must be asked, why did he see in an image a combination of these materials? Nothing is revealed by the God of all idly and to no purpose. An image has form, not substance; the present life is like that, having nothing permanent about it, nothing lasting—hence the cry of blessed Paul, too, “The form of this world is passing away,” and elsewhere he says by way of exhortation, “Do not be conformed to this age.” And blessed David says to prove the futility of human prosperity, “Yet everything is futility, every living person.” Of course, in an image a person goes his way, stores things up, without knowing for whom he is amassing them. So, since the present life also experiences rapid changes (all visible things being mortal, impermanent, passing), and an image does not enjoy the operation of substance, but brings out only the forms of kingdoms, rulers and subjects, and in addition to this it has a form that easily dissolves, the God of all in his wish to instruct that arrogant king in the futility of human conceit and teach him that human affairs are easily subject to change was justified in bringing that image to him in a dream and itemizing its parts in the materials. He wanted to convey succession of kings and to persuade everyone that he alone has unceasing control, without beginning and without end, and a kingdom that is absolutely eternal. – Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on Daniel, chapter 2

Then, to mock the enormity of his impiety, he says, “You sang the praises of the gods of gold, silver, bronze, iron, wood, and stone; and persisting in the mockery, which do not see, do not hear, and do not know:” you were actually capable of realizing their inability to act on the basis of the material, the skill applied to it, and in addition to this their limbs’ lack of senses. After all, they were devoid of knowledge, sight, and hearing, with no single sense operating, being only bare images. Even this, however, did not persuade you to acknowledge your duty; instead, you persisted in singing the praises of gods incapable of any benefit. By contrast, the God in whose hand is your very breath and all your ways you did not glorify. Now, he did well and showed much wisdom in putting in parallel the idols and the God of all with a view to the benefit felt by the hearers; after emphasizing that the former neither see nor hear, instead of proceeding to say in regard to the God of all that He sees and hears and knows, he cited the more powerful fact of all, “Your life and your ways are in his hand,” since providing life to others and in turn removing it at will is more important than having life. He brought out, then, that while the idols are deprived of life and all sensation, the Lord God of all is the source of all life, and both gives it and takes it, governing as he wills. – Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on Daniel, chapter 5

For his part Nebuchadnezzar gazed upon an image, drawing a lesson in the futility of things of this life and the fact that they are rather appearances, as the divine apostle says, not realities, there being nothing lasting or stable in them, everything fluid and failing and fading. – Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on Daniel, chapter 7

Perhaps, on the other hand, you might ask, If Israel had reverted to the worship of idols, how would it not also have abandoned the festivals prescribed by the Law, Sabbaths, and new moon observances? Our reply to this is that, though they had lapsed in their love for God and had bowed down to Baal and the golden heifers, they had not completely rejected the requirements of Moses. Instead, they continued walking and limping in both directions, as the prophet said, thus opting not to worship Baal completely nor the God of all in unadulterated fashion. – Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on Hosea 2

Pelagius (390–418 AD):

They thought they were wise because they had “discovered” how the invisible God can be honored by means of a visible idol! – Pelagius, Commentary on Romans 1:23

Theodoret of Cyrus (393–466 AD):

Thus the wretched one (Nebuchadnezzar) seized, as he thought, the divine honor, and it was not enough for him to be worshiped (προσφέρεσθαι) by his subjects, but he even legislated that this worship (προσκύνησιν) be offered to the image, and on the one hand he astounds all by the material, and the art, and the size of the image; and on the other hand he charms and bewitches with the sound of all kinds of musical instruments; but those who were neither astounded by the size of the image, nor bewitched by the song and pleasure of the instruments, he frightens with the threat of the furnace. And in the case of all the others he did not miss his aim; for he saw everyone doing what was commanded, and accustomed to serve through fear and pleasure; but only those thrice-blessed youths, who kept their ancestral nobility incorrupt even in servitude, Ananias, and Azarias, and Misael, refused the worship, but they did not escape the notice of the Chaldeans who lived in impiety, who wished to have all as partners in their impiety. Immediately, therefore, they approached the king, and reminded him of the law that had been established, which expressly commanded all subjects to worship the image, and which threatened the furnace to those who refused to do so. – Theodoret of Cyrus, Interpretation on Daniel, Chapter 3

“The nations’ idols are silver and gold, works of human hands” (Psalm 115:4): whereas you do what you will, the idols worshipped by the nations do not create but are created; the respect they have comes from the materials, being prepared from gold and silver and colors, and they take their shape from artistry, being prepared by silversmiths and goldsmiths and painters. So they acquire their substance from the material and from artistry. Then he further mocks their powerlessness in the words, “They have mouths, but will not speak; they have eyes, but will not see; they have ears, but will not hear; they have noses, but will not smell; they have hands, but will not feel; they have feet, but will not walk” (Psalm 115:5-7): they invest the images with appeals to the senses, he is saying, but they are deprived of operation; so they are of less value than not only their makers, but even the most insignificant living things. After all, flies and mosquitoes and things smaller than these possess the use of the senses: they see, they hear, they fly, they walk, whereas the gods adored [by them] do not possess the operation of the fewest and smallest animals. They will make no sound in their throat: since the demons operating through them and employing false oracles did not make these offerings through the lifeless idols but through people of reason, or made certain denunciations through symbols of some sort, he was right to say, “They will make no sound in their throat,” idols being completely immobile and inanimate. “Let those who make them be like them, and all who trust in them” (Psalm 115:8): but let their devotees and their makers be like them; it is right and proper that people endowed with reason and fallen victim to such stupidity should incur the same lack of sense as those things worshipped by them. – Theodoret of Cyrus, Commentary on Psalm 115 (Fathers of the Church volume 102, page 225-226)

In consequence of his continual wars the emperor was compelled to impose heavy taxes on the cities of the empire. The city of Antioch refused to put up with the new tax, and when the people saw the victims of its exaction subjected to torture and indignity, then, in addition to the usual deeds which a mob is wont to do when it is seizing an opportunity for disorder, they pulled down the bronze statue of the illustrious Placilla, for so was the empress named, and dragged it over a great part of the town. On being informed of these events the emperor, as was to be expected, was indignant. He then deprived the city of her privileges, and gave her dignity to her neighbour, with the idea that thus he could inflict on her the greatest indignity, for Antioch from the earliest times had had a rival in Laodicea. He further threatened to burn and destroy the town and reduce it to the rank of a village. The magistrates however had arrested some men in the very act, and had put them to death before the tragedy came to the emperor’s ears. All these orders had been given by the Emperor, but had not been carried out because of the restriction imposed by the edict which had been made by the advice of the great Ambrosius. On the arrival of the commissioners who brought the emperor’s threats, Elebichus, then a military commander, and Cæsarius prefect of the palace, styled by the Romans magister officiorum, the whole population shuddered in consternation. But the athletes of virtue, dwelling at the foot of the hill, of whom at that time there were many of the best, made many supplications and entreaties to the imperial officers. The most holy Macedonius, who was quite unversed in the things of this life, and altogether ignorant of the sacred oracles, living on the tops of the mountains, and night and day offering up pure prayers to the Saviour of all, was not in the least dismayed at the imperial violence, nor at all affected by the power of the commissioners. As they rode into the middle of the town he caught hold of one of them by the cloak and bade both of them dismount. At the sight of a little old man [Monk Macedonius], clad in common rags, they were at first indignant, but some of those who were conducting them informed them of the high character of Macedonius, and then they sprang from their horses, caught hold of his knees, and asked his pardon. The old man, urged on by divine wisdom, spoke to them in the following terms: “Say, dear sirs, to the emperor; you are not only an emperor, you are also a man. Bethink you, therefore, not only of your sovereignty, but also of your nature. You are a man, and you reign over your fellow men. Now the nature of man is formed after the image and likeness of God. Do not, therefore, thus savagely and cruelly order the massacre of God’s image, for by punishing His image you will anger the Maker. Think how you are acting thus in your wrath for the sake of a brazen image. Now all who are endued with reason know how far a lifeless image is inferior to one alive and gifted with soul and sense. Take into account, too, that for one image of bronze we can easily make many more. Even you yourself cannot make one single hair of the slain.” – Theodoret of Cyrus, Church History, book 5, chapter 19

The illustrious Athanasius was succeeded by the admirable Petrus, Petrus by Timotheus, and Timotheus by Theophilus, a man of sound wisdom and of a lofty courage. By him Alexandria was set free from the error of idolatry; for, not content with razing the idols’ temples to the ground, he exposed the tricks of the priests to the victims of their wiles. For they had constructed statues of bronze and wood hollow within, and fastened the backs of them to the temple walls, leaving in these walls certain invisible openings. Then coming up from their secret chambers they got inside the statues, and through them gave any order they liked and the hearers, tricked and cheated, obeyed. These tricks the wise Theophilus exposed to the people. Moreover he went up into the temple of Serapis, which has been described by some as excelling in size and beauty all the temples in the world. There he saw a huge image of which the bulk struck beholders with terror, increased by a lying report which got abroad that if any one approached it, there would be a great earthquake, and that all the people would be destroyed. The bishop looked on all these tales as the mere drivelling of tipsy old women, and in utter derision of the lifeless monster’s enormous size, he told a man who had an axe to give Serapis a good blow with it. No sooner had the man struck, than all the folk cried out, for they were afraid of the threatened catastrophe. Serapis however, who had received the blow, felt no pain, inasmuch as he was made of wood, and uttered never a word, since he was a lifeless block. His head was cut off, and immediately out ran multitudes of mice, for the Egyptian god was a dwelling place for mice. Serapis was broken into small pieces of which some were committed to the flames, but his head was carried through all the town in sight of his worshippers, who mocked the weakness of him to whom they had bowed the knee. Thus all over the world the shrines of the idols were destroyed. – Theodoret of Cyrus, Church History, book 5, chapter 22

She maintained a company of virgins vowed to virginity for life, and spent her time in praising God who had made and saved her. One day the emperor was passing by, and as they esteemed the Destroyer an object of contempt and derision, they struck up all the louder music, chiefly chanting those psalms which mock the helplessness of idols, and saying in the words of David “The idols of the nations are of silver and gold, the work of men’s hands,” and after describing their insensibility, they added “like them be they that make them and all those that trust in them.” – Theodoret of Cyrus, Church History, book 3, chapter 14

Then he teaches the wisdom, the knowledge, the power of the incarnate God the Word and he refutes the futility of idols; “Who has measured the water in his hand and the heaven with a span and all the earth in a handful?” The divine nature is both bodiless and formless and simple and uncompounded; but since it is not possible for us, being humans, to comprehend divine things otherwise than from human things, the prophetic word teaches us that the God of all himself is both incomprehensible and uncircumscribable, but he holds all of creation in his hand—the hand, clearly, being understood as some kind of activity—so that the whole nature of the waters has the measure of a cup, and the vaults of the heavens are contained by a span, and the whole earth differs in nothing from some very small matter held by the five fingers of the hand. “Who has set the boundaries by weight and the wooded valleys by a balance?” That is to say: all things are possible for him, all things are measurable by him, and each form of creation has come into being for some useful purpose, for nothing idle nor superfluous was brought into being. “Who has known the mind of the Lord, and who has become his counselor who will instruct him? Or who has shown him judgment? Or who has shown him the way of understanding?” All we men need teaching. For even if someone is exceedingly wise, he entrusts what is to be done to another; but the God of all is an abyss of wisdom and a sea of understanding. If all the nations are reckoned as a drop from a bucket and as the turn of a balance, they will also be reckoned as spittle; “and Lebanon is not sufficient for burning, and all the four-footed beasts are not sufficient for a whole burnt offering, and all the nations are as nothing and were reckoned to him as nothing. “To whom have you likened the Lord or to what likeness have you likened him?” And when legislating, the God of all commanded, saying: “You shall not make for yourself an idol, nor a likeness of anything that is in the heaven above and that is in the earth beneath and that is in the waters under the earth, for I am the Lord your God,” that is: whose form you have not seen. And here the prophetic word, refuting the folly of those who both fashion and worship idols, strives indeed to show the infinity of the divine power, and being unable to teach men otherwise he shows its preeminence from creation; for what a drop is to a bucket, he says, and the turn of a scale, and spittle, that is the whole nature of men in comparison to that ineffable and unlimited power.

Then he teaches that all the kinds of quadrupeds are something small and not sufficient for a sacrifice to the divine majesty, and all the wood of Lebanon is not enough to fill the burning fire. What image, then, of such a one will you be able to construct? Has a craftsman made an image? Or has a goldsmith, melting gold, gilded it or fashioned it in a likeness? The one who is so infinite, so unlimited, what art can imitate? “For a craftsman selects incorruptible wood and wisely seeks how he will set it up as an image so that it may not be shaken.” Concerning the God of all he spoke thus: ‘Lebanon is not sufficient for burning,’ but here, mocking the weakness of idols, he shows the craftsman in need of wood for the fashioning of the so-called god. Not only, he says, does it receive both its substance and its form from a contribution, but it also needs much art, so that it might achieve a likeness and remain unshaken. Then, reproachfully: Will you not know? Will you not hear? Has it not been told to you from the beginning? Have you not known the foundations of the earth? Did I not from above, he says, teach you the weakness of idols? …“To whom then have you likened me, that I should be exalted?” said the Holy One (Isaiah 40:19). To whom do you compare the one who has made these things, the one who is continually working these things? What worthy reverence do you offer? Lift up your eyes on high and see: Who has shown all these things? For you see, he says, the sun, the moon, the choir of the stars, the turnings of the year, the changes of the seasons, the equal successions of night and day. For he added this: He who brings forth his host by number. – Theodoret of Cyrus, Commentary on Isaiah, Book 12

But since you are deprived of both knowledge and power, I will refute your vanity. They chose you, an abomination, from the earth. For whether they are of wood or from gold or silver or tin or bronze, have their nature from the earth; for each of these is from the earth. He calls the idol an abomination as being full of abominations. But I have raised up one from the north and one from the rising of the sun, and they shall be called by my name; let rulers come as potter’s clay, and as a potter treading the clay, so you will be trodden down. He threatens the idols with destruction. He calls the one from the east the righteousness that has risen, about which he also said before: “Who has raised up righteousness from the east?” But the one from the north, the church from the nations, to which came the one from Teman or “from the south” according to the Other Interpreters. For “God shall come from Teman,” that is, from the south. Thus the Lord Christ, appearing from the south and finding it frozen by the deceit of idols, warmed it with the noonday rays and brought it back to life. By this and by its rulers, priests and teachers, the multitude of idols was trodden down. For who has declared things from the beginning, that we might know, and things beforehand, that we may say that they are true? Your supposed oracles, he says, are full of falsehood. There is no one who foretells nor anyone who hears your words. And the outcome testifies to the word; for the oracles everywhere on earth and sea have ceased, and those who gaped after these things have learned the truth. I will give a beginning to Zion and I will console Jerusalem for the way. However, I will bring the first fruits of the teaching to Jerusalem. Thus also in the holy gospels he said: “I was not sent except to the lost sheep of the house of Jacob.” 28For from the nations, behold, there was no one. For the first ones to believe from the Jews became their preachers. And from their idols there was no one who declared. He often ridiculed their ignorance. And if I ask them: Where are you from? they will not answer me; for those who make you are unjust and those who fashion you are vain. Fittingly he both showed the insensibility of the idols and accused the impiety of those who made them. For the former are lifeless, and the latter are exceedingly stupid and impious. Having refuted their error, he shows the bestower of the peace and truth that has dawned: Jacob my servant, I will help him; Israel my chosen one, my soul has accepted him; I have put my spirit upon him, he will bring forth judgment to the nations. – Theodoret of Cyrus, Commentary on Isaiah, Book 12

If it is a god, [Isaiah] says, the whole of the wood should be divine. Why, therefore, do you burn leftover parts of the wood and avail yourself of the fire to provide for your food, since at one time you bake bread, at another you boil and roast meat, and both eat and warm yourself and enjoy its light? Is not the wood that is put into the fire of the same kind as that which you worship? How, therefore, can you cast aside the one and adore the other? – Theodoret of Cyrus (Commentary on Isaiah 13.44.17)

“Who is the image of the invisible God.” For He bears the distinct characteristics of the One who begot Him. This is what was said by the Lord to Philip: “He who has seen Me has seen the Father.” And Adam begot [children] according to his image—that is, resembling him in all things. Therefore, “Image” signifies consubstantiality (homoousion). For while lifeless images do not possess the essence of those things of which they are images, the Living Image, possessing unchangeable likeness, possesses the same nature as the Archetype. -Theodoret of Cyrus, commentary on Colossians 1:12–15 (PG 82:597bc/598bc)

[God says] Foolishness has mastered them; they have lost the faculty of reasoning and are slaves to folly. This is why I will put my Spirit on your descendants, so that they will be delivered from error, for in no other way can they receive the truth. “See, you will not say, There is a lie in my right hand.” The other interpreters join this passage to the one that precedes: “[Know] that no one is able to deliver his soul and no one says, is it a lie that you have in your right hand?” [Isaiah] has, therefore, said about the people who are in error that they do not recognize as a lie that which they are holding. But according to the Septuagint, this phrase, “which is put into the mouth of God,” should be understood thus: “Are my works,” He says, “like those of a whetstone? Has a human made me? Am I an idol? Am I fabricated by cutting wood or stones of gold or silver?” – Theodoret of Cyrus (Commentary on Isaiah 13.44.20)

So Dagon, who was adored as God by them (although he was a dumb, senseless idol), was made to fall before the ark, and God prepared to stage a spectacle for the spectators, so that the Philistines might perceive the difference between false god and true God. In their folly, they raised him up again only to see him fallen a second time and brought to his knees, so to speak. Behaving thus with singular stupidity and reluctant to recognize the difference, they were taught by experience not to run to excess. Having learned their lesson, they returned to their senses, shook off their drunken ignorance and returned the ark, as was fitting, to its proper admirers, having honored it with votive offerings. They confessed their chastisements and instructed those who received it about the manner of its return. – Theodoret of Cyrus on 1 Samuel 5:2-5, ON DIVINE PROVIDENCE 10.50-51|

Philoxenus of Hierapolis (440-523 AD):

Those, however, who had possessions He freed from the bondage of senseless stuff, lest while they served it they should become servers of idols, concerning which it is written, “They have no breath in their mouth, and although they have eyes, and ears, and hands, they see not, and hear not, and work not.” And for this reason the Apostle Paul called the love of mammon “idolatry,” for as the heathen worship things which have no feeling, and in which there is neither life nor perception, even so do those who love riches worship the gold which is silent, and the silver which is dumb, together with all [their] possessions which have neither feeling nor knowledge. One man Jesus commanded, [saying], “Be not a servant of riches,” and to another He ordained the law, “Be not even a master of wealth;” to one He said, “It is a disgrace to your freedom that you should be subject to gold,” and to the other He said, “It is a contemptible thing for thy mastership to rule over natural things, for you are humbled to the possessions which are the shells of natural things.” For to him who had forsaken mastership over everything, and had been caught fast by the desire of little wealth, He said, “Possess, only when you have become possessor of your possession, let it not happen that your possession possess you;” but the other whom He saw had been exalted from being a servant to wealth, He raised up to a higher grade than this, and said, “Be not a master unto it.” For as it is a disgrace to him that wishes to be master of his possessions to become a servant to them, even so is it a disgrace also to him that hath been freed from the bondage of wealth, that there should be found with him the mastership of wealth. – Philoxenus of Hierapolis (A.D. c. 485-519), Ascetic Discourse 8

Severus of Antioch (459-538 AD):

And the words “He will not keep silent” indicate that human nature and our race were acting wickedly and had fallen into deep abysses of malice, to the point where there was no impious act that did not make them bow their heads in submission, even to the point of prostrating themselves before carved stones, venerating and worshiping wood or stone, and calling gods those lifeless and senseless things. But God the Word, although we had come to deserve contempt and silence, so that no sign of His providence was manifested—because our malice had destroyed trust—nevertheless, in His inherent gentleness, did not turn away from us or remain silent. – The Cathedral Homilies of St Severus of Antioch, Homily 7

But we know that when He was in the form of God and condescended to take the form of a servant, He spoke words befitting servitude and obedience, which in no way diminish or lessen the height and loftiness of His divinity. For how could the condescension and humility of words suited to the economy produce a lessening of the divine essence or power? If the ignorant were to take the words “The Father is greater than I” (John 14:28) as a comparison in divinity, how could a creature compare himself to the Uncreated? For it is things that are alike, not those completely different by nature, that are compared. And if Christ is “the power of God and the wisdom of God” , would it not be unreasonable to say that the Father is stronger or wiser because of His wisdom and power? In no way is the Son inferior to the Father, for He possesses the same glory, kingship, eternity, and power as Him. Paul says He is the image of the invisible God, the radiance of His glory and the image of His hypostasis—for the image contains all the traits of the original—so that He is properly an image, not an artificial and lifeless image made skillfully like our images, nor in the sense that we are said to be in the image and likeness of God, partaking of His grace, but the effigy of the likeness and the proper imprint of the Father’s hypostasis, which the image also is, so that He is the hypostatic life of life, the light of light, the endless power of infinite and limitless power. Where, then, shall we place “greater” here, since everywhere we first encounter equality in all things, unless one is forced to say that because the Son is from the Father, though He shone forth from Him timelessly and eternally as the radiance of the Father’s glory, He is not equal in eternity to the One who makes Him shine forth? Yet this causes no inferiority to the Son. – Severus of Antioch, CATHEDRAL HOMILY 90, HOMILY 90 CATECHESIS DELIVERED ACCORDING TO CUSTOM FOR THOSE WHO WERE TO BE BAPTIZED

Caesarius of Arles (468–542 AD):

Quilted or embroidered and all intricately woven coverings or furnishings should never be made in the monastery. Even the furnishings in the oratories ought to be simple, never of pure silk, never bombycine; and nothing should be put on them except black or white crosses, of simple workmanship only on ordinary cloth or linen. Waxed curtains ought never to be hung, nor painted pictures affixed, nor ought any paintings be made on the walls and in the rooms, because that ought not to be in the monastery which does not please the spiritual but only the human eye. If some ornaments should be brought to the monastery either by you or some of the faithful, they can be sold and be of profit for the needs of the monastery; or, if it should be necessary, they can be put aside for the basilica of St. Mary. Embroidery should never be done except on handkerchiefs and towels on which the abbess should order it done. – Caesarius of Arles, The Rule for Nuns, chapter 45

Fifthly, Egypt was scourged by the death of all the animals and flocks. Here is refuted the foolishness and stupidity of men who, like irrational herds, have bestowed the worship and title of a god upon the images of both men and animals. Therefore, it happened justly that they saw dire punishment inflicted upon the creatures in whom they believed there was a divine nature. — Caesarius of Arles, Sermon 99, On the Ten Plagues

Leontius of Byzantium (480-543 AD):

“And while He was praying, the appearance of His face became like the sun, and His clothing was brilliantly flashing like lightning.” Rightly have the color-painters and portrait-artists not learned to paint a single image of the Lord. For what kind of image are they able to paint? The one at His baptism, which Jordan shuddered upon seeing? Or the one on the mountain, which Peter, James, and John could not bear to gaze upon? Or the one on the cross, which the sun grew dark upon beholding? Or the one in the tomb, which the powers below shuddered to look upon? Or the one at the resurrection, which the disciples saw but did not comprehend? Every single one of those who say, “I possess the likeness of the Lord,” utterly astounds me. Do you wish to possess His likeness? Possess it in your soul; for it is impossible for the Lord to be painted in an image. – Leontius of Byzantium (480-543), as quoted by Nicephoros I of Constantinople (Refutation and Overthrow of the Synodal Definition of the Year)

Amphilochius of Iconium (339 –403 AD):

The saints have no need of our praises through written words, for they are already written in the book of the living, and their righteousness is guarded with God. Instead, it is we who have need of these written words of ink, so that our mind may trace out their memory for the common benefit, and that we may be hearers of these things whenever we pass them on to our ears through reading. For, as if from a great treasury, we receive their blessings for our spiritual management, and we fill up our own shortcomings by means of their ways of life; for an ear that possesses a desire to hear of their perfection is never completely filled. For it is not our concern to meticulously imprint the physical faces of the saints on panels through colors, for we have no need of these things, but rather to imitate their way of life through virtue, trace out our own love toward God, and become imitators of their good actions, depositing their memories into writing after their death for those who hear it, so that they may know their way of life while they were in the world. – Amphilochius of Iconiumnium, Encomium for Basil (as quoted by Nicephoros I of Constantinople (Refutation and Overthrow of the Synodal Definition of the Year), and cited by The Council of Hieria, Mansi, Volume 13, page 301D)

Theodotus of Ancyra (died -303 AD):

We have not received a tradition to reshape the forms of the saints in images made of material colors, but we have been taught to imprint their virtues—revealed through what is written about them in the Scriptures—as if they were living images, being stirred up by this toward a zeal like theirs. – Theodotus of Ancyra (as cited by Nicephoros I of Constantinople (Refutation and Overthrow of the Synodal Definition of the Year), and cited by The Council of Hieria, Mansi, Volume 13, page 309 E–312A: τὰς τῶν ἁγίων ἰδέας οὐκ ἐν εἰκόσιν ἐξ ὑλικῶν χρωμάτων ἀναμορφοῦν παρειλήφαμεν, ἀλλὰ τὰς τούτων ἀρετὰς διὰ τῶν ἐν γραφαῖς περὶ αὐτῶν δηλουμένων οἷόν τινας ἐμψύχους εἰκόνας ἀναμάττεσθαι δεδιδάγμεθα, ἐκ τούτου πρὸς τὸν ὅμοιον αὐτοῖς διεγειρόμενοι ζῆλον.)

Gregory the Great (540-604 AD):

Furthermore we notify to you that it has come to our ears that your Fraternity, seeing certain adorers of images, broke and threw down these same images in Churches. And we commend you indeed for your zeal against anything made with hands being an object of adoration; but we signify to you that you ought not to have broken these images. For pictorial representation is made use of in Churches for this reason; that such as are ignorant of letters may at least read by looking at the walls what they cannot read in books. Your Fraternity therefore should have both preserved the images and prohibited the people from adoration of them, to the end that both those who are ignorant of letters might have wherewith to gather a knowledge of the history, and that the people might by no means sin by adoration of a pictorial representation. – Gregory the Great, Epistle 105 to Serenus, Bishop of Massilia

For indeed it had been reported to us that, inflamed with inconsiderate zeal, you had broken images of saints, as though under the plea that they ought not to be adored. And indeed in that you forbade them to be adored, we altogether praise you [lat.: Et quidem quia eas adorari vetuisses, omnino laudavimus]; but we blame you for having broken them. Say, brother, what priest has ever been heard of as doing what you have done? If nothing else, should not even this thought have restrained you, so as not to despise other brethren, supposing yourself only to be holy and wise? For to adore a picture is one thing, but to learn through the story of a picture what is to be adored is another. For what writing presents to readers, this a picture presents to the unlearned who behold, since in it even the ignorant see what they ought to follow; in it the illiterate read. […] And if any one should wish to make images, by no means prohibit him, but by all means forbid the adoration of images. – Gregory the Great, Epistle 13, Patrologia Latina 77:1128C

It’s as if in venerating Abraham and the prophets they [i.e. the Jews] were placing them ahead even of Truth himself. We are shown that those who do not know God venerate his servants erroneously. – Gregory the Great, Patrologia Latina 76:1152, commenting on John 8:52

That Job means by interpretation, ‘Grieving,’ we have already said a little above. And He is truly called ‘Grieving’ in figure, Who is declared by the testimony of the Prophet ‘to bear our griefs.’ [Isa. 53, 4] Who has not His like on the earth; for every man is only man, but He is both God and Man. He has not His like on earth, because though every son by adoption attains to the receiving of the Divine nature, yet none ever receives so much, as to be, by nature, God. He was even rightly styled a servant, because He did not disdain to take the form of a servant. Nor did His taking the humility of the flesh injure His sovereignty, for in order that He might both take upon Him that which He was to save, yet not undergo alteration in that which He had, He neither lessened the Divine by the Human, nor swallowed up the Human in the Divine; for although Paul hath it, Who being in the form of God thought it not robbery to be equal with God; but emptied Himself, and took upon Him the form of a servant; [Phil. 2, 6. 7.] yet to Him it is ‘emptying Himself,’ of the greatness of His Invisible Being to manifest Himself as Visible; so that the form of a servant should be the covering of That Which without limitation enters into all things by virtue of Godhead. Again, God’s saying to Satan in figure, Hast Thou considered My servant Job, is His exhibiting in his despite the Only-Begotten Son as an object of wonder in the form of a servant. For in that He made Him known in the flesh as of so great virtue, He as it were pointed out to the adversary in his pride what it would grieve him to contemplate; but now that He had brought before him a perfect object for him to admire, it remains that in order to strike down his pride he should further go on to enumerate its excellencies. – Gregory the Great, Morals on Job, book 2, chapter 42

Pope Boniface V (625 AD):

[Bede recounts] About this time, the king received a letter from Boniface, Bishop of the apostolic Roman see, urging him to accept the Faith. Here follows a copy of this letter, sent by the blessed and apostolic Pope Boniface of the Church and City of Rome to the illustrious Edwin, King of the English:

To the illustrious Edwin, King of the English: Boniface, Bishop, servant of the servants of God. The words of man can never express the power of the supreme Divinity, abiding in His own greatness, invisible, inscrutable, eternal, such that no human intelligence can understand or define how great it is. Nevertheless, God’s humanity having opened the doors of man’s heart to admit Him, mercifully infuses into their minds by secret inspiration some knowledge of Himself. Accordingly, we have undertaken to extend our priestly responsibility to disclose to you the fullness of the Christian Faith, in order that we may impart to your sense also the Gospel of Christ, which our Saviour commanded to be preached to all nations, and may offer you the medicine of salvation. The clemency of the Divine Majesty, who by His Word alone created and established the heavens and the earth, the sea and all that in them is, has ordained the laws by which they subsist; and by the counsel of His co-eternal Word in the unity of the Holy Spirit He has formed man after His own image and likeness from the dust of the earth. He has further granted him a most excellent prerogative, placing him above all other creatures in order that he may inherit eternal life by obedience to His commandments.

This God—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—the undivided Trinity—is adored and worshipped by the human race from east to west, which confesses Him by the faith that brings salvation as Creator of all things and Maker of all men. To Him are subject all imperial power and authority; for it is by Him that kingship is conferred. Of His bountiful mercy and for the well-being of all His creatures, He has been pleased to warm with His Holy Spirit the frozen hearts of the most distant nations of the world in a most wonderful manner to knowledge of Himself.

We presume that Your Majesty has heard in fuller detail, as from a neighbouring territory, how our Redeemer in His mercy has brought light to our excellent son Eadbald and the nations subject to him. We therefore trust that Heaven’s mercy will grant this wonderful gift to you as it has to him, more especially as we understand that your gracious Queen and true partner is already endowed with the gift of eternal life through the regeneration of Holy Baptism. In this letter we affectionately urge Your Majesties to renounce idol-worship, reject the mummery of shrines and the deceitful flattery of omens, and believe in God the Father Almighty, and in His Son Jesus Christ, and in the Holy Spirit. This Faith will free you from Satan’s bondage, and through the liberative power of the holy and undivided Trinity you will inherit eternal life.

The profound guilt of those who perversely cling to pernicious superstition and idolatrous worship is clearly shown by the damnable example of those they adore. Of such the Psalmist says: All the gods of the nations are idols; but the Lord made the heavens (Psalm 96:5). And again: Eyes have they, but they see not: they have ears, but they hear not: noses have they, but they smell not; they have hands, but they handle not; feet have they, but they walk not. They that make them are like unto them; so is everyone that trusteth in them (Psalm 115:5–8). How can such objects have power to help you, when they are made for you from perishable materials by the labour of your own subjects and servants? Even their inanimate resemblance to living shapes is due solely to man’s craftsmanship. Unless you move them they cannot move, but are like a stone fixed in its place: they are manufactured, but have no intelligence, being utterly insensible and having no power to hurt or help. We cannot understand how people can be so deluded as to worship as gods objects to which they themselves have given the likeness of a body.

John Climacus (579 – 649 AD):

1. Poverty is the resignation of cares, life without anxiety, an unencumbered traveller, alienation from sorrow, fidelity to the commandments. 2. A poor monk is lord of the world. He has entrusted his cares to God and by faith has obtained all men as his slaves. He will not tell his need to man, and he receives what comes to him, as from the hand of the Lord. 3. The poor ascetic is a son of detachment and thinks of what he has as if it were nothing. When he becomes a solitary, he regards everything as dung. But if he worries about something, he has not yet become poor. 4. A poor man is pure in prayer, but the lover of possessions prays to images of wood (Ακτήμων ἀνὴρ ἐν προσευχῇ καθαρὸς, ὁ δὲ φιλοκτήμων εἰκόνας ὕλης προσεύχεται). 5. Those who live in obedience are strangers to love of money. For where they have given up even their body, what [possession] do they have left of their own? Those who are by nature inclined to risk such things are quick and ready for the [soul’s] transition. I have seen material endurance produce monks in this place. But I have deemed more blessed those who draw near to the Lord. 6. He who has tasted of the things above easily scorns the things below. But he who has not tasted the things above finds joy in possessions…. 11. He who despises matter is rid of quarrels and controversies (ὁ καταφρονήσας ὕλης, ἐλυτρώθη δικαιολογίας καὶ ἀντιλογίας); but the covetous man will fight till death for a needle…. 16. This is the seventeenth step. He who has mounted it is journeying to Heaven stripped of material things (Ἑπτακαιδέκατον ἄθλον ὁ κτησάμενος, πρὸς οὐρανὸν ἀΰλως ὁδοιπορεῖ.). – John Climacus, Ladder of Divine Ascent, Step 17, Patrologia Graeca 88:928-929

Maximus the Confessor (580–662 AD):

5. If all things have been made by God and for his sake, then God is better than what has been made by him. The one who forsakes the better and is engrossed in inferior things shows that he prefers the things made by God to God himself. 6. The one who has his mind fixed on the love of God disdains all visible things and even his own body as alien. 7. If the soul is better than the body and God incomparably better than the world which he created, the one who prefers the body to the soul and the world to the God who created it is no different from idolaters. 8. The one who separates his mind from love and devotedness toward God and keeps it tied to any sensible thing is the one who prefers the body to the soul and things that are made to God the Creator. – Maximus the Confessor, Chapters on Love (First Century), chapters 5-8

12. In building the summit of good things on the Lord as a foundation of faith we must lay down gold, silver, and precious stones, that is, a pure and unalloyed theology, a bright and shining life, and divine notions as pearl-like thoughts; not wood, hay, or straw, that is, idolatry, which is the passionate seeking after things of sense, nor impassioned imaginings, which are as deprived of wise understanding as stalks. – Maximus the Confessor, Chapters on Knowledge (Second Century), chapter 12

26. The one who is still satisfying the passionate appetites of the flesh dwells as a maker and worshiper of idols in the land of the Chaldeans. But after some reflection on this matter he becomes aware of behavior which is more proper to nature, leaves the land of the Chaldeans, and goes to Haran in Mesopotamia, that is, the frontier state between virtue and vice which is not yet purified of the deception of the senses. This is what the word Haran means. But if one looks even beyond the understanding of the good which is suitable to the senses, he will press on to the good land, that is, to the state which is free from all vice and ignorance which a faithful God points out and professes to give as a reward of virtue to those who love him. – Maximus the Confessor, Chapters on Knowledge (Second Century), chapter 26

57. The Lord sometimes is away and sometimes close at hand. He is away insofar as face-to-face vision is concerned, but He is close to us in a vision which is indistinct as in a mirror. 58. To the active person the Lord is present through the virtues, but He is absent to the one who has no understanding of virtue. Likewise, to the contemplative He is present through knowledge of things, but absent to the one who falls away from this in any way. 59. The one who passes from an active to a gnostic condition takes leave of flesh. He is snatched up to the clouds of loftier understandings to the diaphanous air of mystical contemplation where he will ever be able to be with the Lord. But far from the Lord is the one who cannot yet contemplate the understandings as far as they can be contemplated with a pure mind without sense activity, who does not take in the simple and direct meaning of the Lord without images. – Maximus the Confessor, Chapters on Knowledge, chapters 57-59

73. It is, therefore, very necessary for a deep knowledge that we first study the veils of the statements regarding the Word and so behold with the naked mind the pure Word as he exists in himself, who clearly shows the Father in himself, as far as it is possible for men to grasp. Thus it is necessary that the one who seeks after God in a religious way never hold fast to the letter lest he mistakenly understand things said about God for God himself. In this case we unwisely are satisfied with the words of Scripture in place of the Word, and the Word slips out of the mind while we thought by holding on to his garments we could possess the incorporeal Word. In a similar way did the Egyptian woman lay hold not of Joseph but of his clothing, and the men of old who remained permanently in the beauty of visible things and mistakenly worshiped the creature instead of the Creator.

By the hearing of the divine words there is effected the firm and unchangeable habits and dispositions of the realities just mentioned that is of faith virtue, and knowledge. Through the divine chants which follow there is effected the deliberate consent of the soul to virtue as well as the spiritual delight and en1oyment that these arouse in it. By the sacred reading of the holy Gospel there is brought about the end of earthly thinking as of the world of sense. Then by the closing of doors which follows there is effected the passage and transfer of the soul in its disposition from this corruptible world to the intelligible world, whereby having closed its senses like doors it renders them cleansed of the idols of sin. By the entrance into the holy mysteries we see the more perfect and mystical and new teaching and knowledge of God’s dispensation toward us. – Maximus the Confessor, The Church’s Mystagogy, chapter 24

Thus for the active ones there results perfect detachment by which every passionate and unenlightened thought departs from the soul, and for those with knowledge the comprehensive science of whatever is known by which all images of material things are chased away from the soul. – Maximus the Confessor, The Church’s Mystagogy, chapter 24

Isaac the Syrian (613–700 AD):

He whose majesty is blessed, will open the gate before us, so that we have no single wish than desire of Him. When we so abandon everything, and our mind goes out to seek Him alone, there will be no thought in it of anything which screens its face from the aspect of the Lord of the Universe. The more the mind abandons the thought of visible things, O my beloved, and the more it thinks of the future hope, in accordance with the degree of elevation above bodily thoughts and intercourse with them, to the same extent it will be subtilized and become clear during prayer. To the same extent as the body, the mind is made free from the bonds of [worldly] things; and to the same extent as it is made free from the ties of thoughts, does it become serene; and to the same extent as it becomes serene, is it also subtilized, and to the same extent as it is subtilized, is it lifted up above the emotions of this world which bears the stamp of grossness. And it knows that it shall look on God as He is, not as we are.

If a man is not made free from all those things which I have mentioned and from their causes, he cannot consider the hidden things of the mind. Therefore our Lord has ordered us to practice renunciation before any other thing, and flight from the troubles of the world, and freedom from common human thought. “Whoever does not forsake his whole human state and all that he possesses, and deny even himself, he cannot be a disciple to Me;” lest the mind be injured by anything: by sight, by hearing, by care of [worldly] things, their loss or their increase, or by man. And thereby that He has bound our mind by hope of Himself alone, He has caused the whole care of our deliberations to look towards Himself. And in Himself He has bound the whole care of our mind, after having freed it from all other things, that thence we may long after intercourse with Himself, because of our care being continually directed towards Himself. – Isaac the Syrian, Six Treatises on the Behavior of Excellence, chapter LXIII, “Why It Is That People Who Are in the Psychic State of Knowledge Consider Spiritual Things in Accordance with [Their] Bodily Grossness and How It Is Possible That the Mind Be Elevated Above This and What Is the Cause Why We Are Not Freed from It and When and How It Is Possible for the Mind to Remain Without Images at the Time of Prayer

Synod of Hieria (754 AD):

The evil custom of assigning names to the images does not come down from Christ and the Apostles and the holy Fathers; nor have these left behind then, any prayer by which an image should be hallowed or made anything else than ordinary matter.

If, however, some say, we might be right in regard to the images of Christ, on account of the mysterious union of the two natures, but it is not right for us to forbid also the images of the altogether spotless and ever-glorious Mother of God, of the prophets, apostles, and martyrs, who were mere men and did not consist of two natures; we may reply, first of all: If those fall away, there is no longer need of these. But we will also consider what may be said against these in particular. Christianity has rejected the whole of heathenism, and so not merely heathen sacrifices, but also the heathen worship of images. The Saints live on eternally with God, although they have died. If anyone thinks to call them back again to life by a dead art, discovered by the heathen, he makes himself guilty of blasphemy. Who dares attempt with heathenish art to paint the Mother of God, who is exalted above all heavens and the Saints? It is not permitted to Christians, who have the hope of the resurrection, to imitate the customs of demon-worshippers, and to insult the Saints, who shine in so great glory, by common dead matter.

Moreover, we can prove our view by Holy Scripture and the Fathers. In the former it is said: “God is a Spirit: and they that worship him must worship him in spirit and in truth;” and: “Thou shall not make thee any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath;” on which account God spoke to the Israelites on the Mount, from the midst of the fire, but showed them no image. Further: “They changed the glory of the incorruptible God into an image made like to corruptible man,… and served the creature more than the Creator.”

Supported by the Holy Scriptures and the Fathers, we declare unanimously, in the name of the Holy Trinity, that there shall be rejected and removed and cursed one of the Christian Church every likeness which is made out of any material and colour whatever by the evil art of painters.

Whoever in future dares to make such a thing, or to venerate it, or set it up in a church, or in a private house, or possesses it in secret, shall, if bishop, presbyter, or deacon, be deposed; if monk or layman, be anathematised, and become liable to be tried by the secular laws as an adversary of God and an enemy of the doctrines handed down by the Fathers. At the same time we ordain that no incumbent of a church shall venture, under pretext of destroying the error in regard to images, to lay his hands on the holy vessels in order to have them altered, because they are adorned with figures. The same is provided in regard to the vestments of churches, cloths, and all that is dedicated to divine service. If, however, the incumbent of a church wishes to have such church vessels and vestments altered, he must do this only with the assent of the holy Ecumenical patriarch and at the bidding of our pious Emperors. So also no prince or secular official shall rob the churches, as some have done in former times, under the pretext of destroying images. All this we ordain, believing that we speak as doth the Apostle, for we also believe that we have the spirit of Christ; and as our predecessors who believed the same thing spake what they had synodically defined, so we believe and therefore do we speak, and set forth a definition of what has seemed good to us following and in accordance with the definitions of our Fathers.

When, however, they are blamed for undertaking to depict the divine nature of Christ, which should not be depicted, they take refuge in the excuse: We represent only the flesh of Christ which we have seen and handled. But that is a Nestorian error. For it should be considered that that flesh was also the flesh of God the Word, without any separation, perfectly assumed by the divine nature and made wholly divine. How could it now be separated and represented apart? So is it with the human soul of Christ which mediates between the Godhead of the Son and the dullness of the flesh. As the human flesh is at the same time flesh of God the Word, so is the human soul also soul of God the Word, and both at the same time, the soul being deified as well as the body, and the Godhead remained undivided even in the separation of the soul from the body in his voluntary passion. For where the soul of Christ is, there is also his Godhead; and where the body of Christ is, there too is his Godhead. If then in his passion the divinity remained inseparable from these, how do the fools venture to separate the flesh from the Godhead, and represent it by itself as the image of a mere man? They fall into the abyss of impiety, since they separate the flesh from the Godhead, and represent it by itself as the image of a mere man? They fall into the abyss of impiety, since they separate the flesh from the Godhead, ascribe to it a subsistence of its own, a personality of its own, which they depict, and thus introduce a fourth person into the Trinity. Moreover, they represent as not being made divine, that which has been made divine by being assumed into the Godhead. Whoever, then, makes an image of Christ either depicts the Godhead which cannot be depicted, and mingles in with the manhood (like the Monophysites), or he represents the body of Christ as not made divine and separate and as a person apart, like the Nestorians. The only admissible figure of the humanity of Christ, however, is bread and wine in the holy Supper. This and no other form, this and no other type, has he chosen to represent his incarnation – Synod of Hieria in Constantinople in 754 AD

Acts of John (180 AD):

26 There came together therefore a gathering of a great multitude on John’s account; and as he discoursed to them that were there, Lycomedes, who had a friend who was a skillful painter, went hastily to him and said to him: You see me in a great hurry to come to you; come quickly to my house and paint the man whom I show you without his knowing it. And the painter, giving some one the necessary implements and colors, said to Lycomedes: Show him to me, and for the rest have no anxiety. And Lycomedes pointed out John to the painter, and brought him near him, and shut him up in a room from which the apostle of Christ could be seen. And Lycomedes was with the blessed man, feasting on the faith and the knowledge of our God, and rejoiced yet more in the thought that he should possess him in a portrait.

27 The painter first sketched the outline on the first day and, on the next, filled it in with colors, delivering the finished portrait to Lycomedes, who received it with great joy. He took it and placed it in his bedroom, adorning it with garlands. Later, when John noticed it, he asked him, “My beloved child, what is this that you do when you come back from the bath and go alone to your room? Do I not pray with you and the other brethren? Or are you hiding something from us?” And as he said this, joking with him, he went into the room and saw the portrait of an old man crowned with garlands, with lamps and altars before it. He called Lycomedes and said, “What is this portrait about? Is this one of your gods? I see that you are still living like a pagan.” Lycomedes replied, “No, my only God is the one who raised me from death, together with my wife. But if, next to God, it is right to honor those who have helped us as gods, then it is you, Father, whom I have had painted in this portrait. You are the one I crown, love, and honor as my guide.”

28 John, who had never seen his own face, replied, “You mock me, child. Do you think I look like this, better than your Lord? How can you convince me that this portrait resembles me?” Lycomedes brought him a mirror, and when John looked at his reflection and compared it to the portrait, he said, “As the Lord Jesus Christ lives, the portrait resembles me, but it is not truly me, child—it is merely a likeness of my flesh. If this painter had tried to truly capture me, he would need more than colors, wood, plaster, and glue—he would need to represent more than my physical appearance, including my youth and old age, and everything else seen by the eye.”

29 “But you, Lycomedes, can become a better painter for me. You have colors given to you by the One who paints us all—Jesus—who knows the forms, appearances, and dispositions of our souls. The colors I ask you to use are these: faith in God, knowledge, reverence, friendship, fellowship, meekness, kindness, brotherly love, purity, simplicity, peace, courage, joy, sobriety, and all the virtues that form the likeness of your soul. These colors will raise up what was cast down, straighten what was crooked, heal your wounds, and restore you. When all these virtues come together in your soul, it will present you to our Lord Jesus Christ, strong, whole, and without fear. But this thing you have done now is incomplete and childish: you have painted only a dead likeness of the dead.” – Acts of John (180 AD), chapters 26-29

The Passion of the Scillitan Martyrs (180 AD):

Speratus said: We have never done ill, we have not lent ourselves to wrong, we have never spoken ill, but when ill-treated we have given thanks; because we pay heed to our Emperor.

Saturninus the proconsul said: We too are religious, and our religion is simple, and we swear by the genius of our lord the Emperor, and pray for his welfare, as you also ought to do.

Speratus said: If you will peaceably lend me your ears, I can tell you the mystery of simplicity.

Saturninus said: I will not lend mine ears to you, when you begin to speak evil things of our sacred rites; but rather swear by the genius of our lord the Emperor.

Speratus said: The empire of this world I know not; but rather I serve that God, whom no man has seen, nor with these eyes can see (1 Timothy 6:16). I have committed no theft; but if I have bought anything I pay the tax; because I know my Lord, the King of kings and Emperor of all nations.

• Some people might think that Paul’s words about not being able to see God with carnal eyes only applies to God the Father, but these martyrs apply it to Jesus as well!

Church Fathers Cited (73):

Clement of Rome (died 100 AD)

Ignatius of Antioch (30-108 AD)

Mathetes (130 AD)

Aristides of Athens (117–138 AD)

Justin Martyr (160 AD)

Tatian the Syrian (160 AD)

Melito of Sardis (160 AD)

Theophilus of Antioch (168 AD)

Athenagoras of Athens (176 AD)

Irenaeus of Lyon (180 AD)

Apollonius of Rome (185 AD)

Clement of Alexandria (195 AD)

Tertullian (197 AD)

Mark Minucius Felix (210 AD)

Hippolytus of Rome (225 AD)

Origen of Alexandria (235 AD)

Commodianus (250 AD)

Cyprian of Carthage (250 AD)

Novatian (200 – 258 AD)

Valentine of Terni (269 AD)

Methodius (300 AD)

Arnobius (305 AD)

Lactantius (313 AD)

Apostolic Constitutions

Council of Elvira (305 AD)

Eusebius of Caesarea (260-339 AD)

Anthony the Great (251-356 AD)

Aphrahat (270-345 AD)

Athanasius of Alexandria (296-373 AD)

Zeno of Verona (300-380 AD)

Macarius of Egypt (300–391 AD)

Epiphanius of Salamis (310-403 AD)

John Chrysostom (347-407 AD)

Hilary of Poitiers (310-367 AD)

Ephrem the Syrian (306–373 AD)

Gregory of Nyssa (335-394 AD)

Macarius Magnes (late 300s AD)

Cyril of Jerusalem (313–386 AD)

Didymus the Blind (313– 398 AD:

Ambrose of Milan (339–397 AD)

Basil of Caesarea (330-379 AD)

Ambrosiaster (366 – 384 AD)

Rufinus of Aquileia (340-410 AD)

Jerome (342-420)

Augustine (354-430 AD)

Paulinus of Nola (354-431 AD)

Quodvultdeus of Carthage (? – 450 AD)

Asterius (380-390 AD)

Gaudentius of Brescia (ca. 387-410)

Gregory of Elvira (died 392 AD)

Maximus of Turin (380 – 465 AD)

Peter Chrysologus (406-450 AD)

Chromatius of Aquileia (died 407 AD)

Prudentius (348 – 413 AD)

Theodore of Mopsuestia (350-428 AD)

John Cassian (360-435 AD)

Cyril of Alexandria (376–444 AD)

Pelagius (390–418 AD)

Theodoret of Cyrus (393–466 AD)

Philoxenus of Hierapolis (440-523 AD)

Caesarius of Arles (468–542 AD)

Leontius of Byzantium (480-543 AD)

Amphilochius of Iconium (339 –403 AD)

Theodotus of Ancyra (died -303 AD)

Severus of Antioch (459-538 AD)

Gregory the Great (540-604 AD)

Pope Boniface V (618-625 AD)

John Climacus (579-649 AD)

Maximus the Confessor (580–662 AD)

Isaac the Syrian (613–700 AD)

Synod of Hieria (754 AD)

Acts of John

Meaning of The Second Commandment:

In the first commandment, God forbade the Israelites from worshiping other gods. In the second commandment, He forbade the Israelites from worshiping even the true God with lifeless, false representations.

Philo of Alexandria:

II. (5) Pride is also the cause of many other evils, such as insolence, arrogance, and impiety. And these are the beginnings of foreign and civil wars, allowing nothing whatever to rest in peace in any part, whether it be public or private, by sea or by land. (6) And why need I mention the offences of such men against one another? For even divine things are neglected by pride, even though they are generally thought to be entitled to the highest honour. And what honour can there be where there is not truth also which has an honourable name and reality, since falsehood, on the other hand, is by nature devoid of honour; (7) and the neglect of divine things is evident to those who see clearly; for they, having fashioned an infinite variety of appearances by the arts of painting and sculpture, have surrounded them with temples and shrines, and have erected altars, and adorned them with images and statues, and erections of that kind, giving celestial honours to all sorts of inanimate things, (8) and these men the sacred scriptures very felicitously liken to men born of a harlot. For as these men are inscribed as the children of all the lovers whom their mothers have had and call their fathers, from ignorance of the one who is by nature their real father, so also these men in cities, not knowing the truly and really existing and true God, have made deities of an innumerable host of false gods. (9) Then, as different beings were treated with divine honours by different nations, the diversity of opinions respecting the Supreme Being, begot also disputes about all kinds of other subjects; and it was from having a regard to these facts in the first place that Moses decided on giving his laws outside of the city. – Philo of Alexandria, On The Decalogue, chapter 2

XIV. (65) Let us, therefore, fix deeply in ourselves this first commandment as the most sacred of all commandments, to think that there is but one God, the most highest, and to honour him alone; and let not the polytheistical doctrine ever even touch the ears of any man who is accustomed to seek for the truth, with purity and sincerity of heart; (66) for those who are ministers and servants of the sun, and of the moon, and of all the host of heaven, or of it in all its integrity or of its principal parts, are in grievous error; (how can they fail to be, when they honour the subjects instead of the prince?) but still they sin less grievously than the others, who have fashioned stocks, and stones, and silver, and gold, and similar materials according to their own pleasure, making images, and statues, and all kinds of other things wrought by the hand; the workmanship in which, whether by statuary, or painter, or artisan, has done great injury to the life of man, having filled the whole habitable world. (67) For they have cut away the most beautiful support of the soul, namely the proper conception of the ever-living God; and therefore, like ships without ballast, they are tossed about in every direction for ever, being borne in every direction, so as never once to reach the haven, and never to be able to anchor firmly in truth, being blind respecting that which is worth seeing, and the only object as to which it is absolutely necessary to be sharp-sighted; (68) and such men appear to me to have a more miserable life than those who are deprived of their bodily sight; for these latter have either been injured without their own consent, or else have endured some terrible disease of the eyes, or else have been plotted against by their enemies; but those others by their own deliberate intention, have not only dimmed the eye of their soul, but have even chosen utterly to discard it; (69) on which account pity is bestowed on the one class as unfortunate, but the other class are justly punished as being wicked, who in conjunction with others have not chosen to recognize that fact which even an infant child would understand, namely, that the Creator is better than the creature; for he is both more ancient in point of time, and is also in a manner the father of that which he has made. He is also superior in power, for the agent is more glorious than the patient. (70) And though it would be proper, if they had not committed sins, to deify the painters and statuaries themselves with exceeding honours, they have left them in obscurity, giving them no advantage, but have looked upon the figures which have been made, or the pictures which have been painted by them, as gods; (71) and these artists have often grown old in poverty and obscurity, dying, worn out by incessant misfortunes, while the things which they have fabricated, are made splendid with purple, and gold, and all sorts of costly splendour which wealth can furnish, and are worshipped not only by freemen but even by men of noble birth, and of the greatest personal strength and beauty. For the race of priests is scrutinised with the greatest rigour and minuteness, to see whether they are without blemish, and to see whether the whole combination of the parts of their bodies is entire and perfect; (72) and these are not the worst points of all, bad as they are: but this is entirely intolerable, for I have known before now, some of the very men who have made the things, praying and sacrificing to the very things which have been made by them, when it would have been more to their purpose to worship either of their own hands, or, if they feared the reproach of self-conceit, and therefore did not choose to do that, at all events to worship their anvils, and hammers, and graving tools, and compasses, and other instruments, by means of which the materials have been fashioned into shape. – Philo of Alexandria, On The Decalogue, chapter 14

XIII. (58) “And there were giants on the earth in those Days.” Perhaps some one may here think, that the lawgiver is speaking enigmatically and alluding to the fables handed down by the poets about giants, though he is a man as far removed as possible from any invention of fables, and one who thinks fit only to walk in the paths of truth itself; (59) in consequence of which principle, he [Moses] has banished from the constitution, which he has established, those celebrated and beautiful arts of statuary and painting, because they, falsely imitating the nature of the truth, contrive deceits and snares, in order, through the medium of the eyes, to beguile the souls which are liable to be easily won over. (60) Therefore he utters no fable whatever respecting the giants; but he wishes to set this fact before your eyes, that some men are born of the earth, and some are born of heaven, and some are born of God: those are born of the earth, who are hunters after the pleasures of the body, devoting themselves to the enjoyment and fruition of them, and being eager to provide themselves with all things that tend to each of them. Those again are born of heaven who are men of skill and science and devoted to learning; for the heavenly portion of us is our mind, and the mind of every one of those persons who are born of heaven studies the encyclical branches of education and every other art of every description, sharpening, and exercising, and practising itself, and rendering itself acute in all those matters which are the objects of intellect. (61) Lastly, those who are born of God are priests and prophets, who have not thought fit to mix themselves up in the constitutions of this world, and to become cosmopolites, but who having raised themselves above all the objects of the mere outward senses, have departed and fixed their views on that world which is perceptible only by the intellect, and have settled there, being inscribed in the state of incorruptible incorporeal ideas. – Philo, On The Giants, chapter 13/paragraphs 58-61

“Agrippa, having visited Jerusalem in Herod’s time, was enchanted by the religion of the Jews, and could never cease to speak of it.…Augustus ordered that every day, at his own expense, and under the legal forms, a bull and two lambs should be offered in holocaust to the Most High God on the altar at Jerusalem, though he knew that it contained no image, whether exposed or within the veil; for this great prince, surpassed by none in the philosophic spirit, felt the actual necessity in this world of an altar dedicated to a God invisible…. Your great-grandmother Julia also made superb presents to the temple; and although women very reluctantly detach themselves from images, and rarely conceive of anything apart from sensation, this lady, nevertheless, greatly superior to her sex in culture and in natural endowments, arrived at that point in which she preferred to contemplate such things in the mind rather than in sensible objects, regarding these as mere shadows of the realities.” – Philo, Discourse to Caligula (Legatio Ad Gaium, On the Virtues and on the Office of Ambassadors, lines 311-320)

So that, transcending all visible essence by means of our reason, let us press forward to the honour of that everlasting and invisible Being who can be comprehended and appreciated by the mind alone; who is not only the God of all gods, whether appreciable only by the intellect or visible to the outward senses, but is also the creator of them all. And if any one gives up the service due to the everlasting and uncreated God, transferring it to any more modern and created being, let him be set down as mad and as liable to the charge of the greatest impiety.

But there are some persons who have given gold and silver to sculptors and statuaries, as people able to fashion gods for them. And they, taking the lifeless materials and using a mortal model, have (which is a most extraordinary thing) made gods, as far as appearance went, and have built temples and erected altars, and dedicated them to them, honouring them with excessive pains and diligence, with sacrifices and processions, and all kinds of other sacred ceremonies and purifications; the priests and priestesses exciting themselves to the very extremity of their power to extend this kind of pride and vanity.

To whom the Father of the universe thus speaks, saying: “You shall not make to yourselves gods of silver and gold;” all but teaching them in express words, “You shall not make to yourselves any gods whatever of this or of any other material, nor shall you worship anything made with hands,” being forbidden expressly with respect to the two most excellent materials; for silver and gold are esteemed the most honourable of all materials.

And, besides this distinct prohibition, there is another meaning which appears to me to be intended to be figuratively conveyed under these words, which is one of very great influence as contributing to the formation of the moral character, and which convicts in no slight degree those who are covetous of money and who seek to procure silver and gold from all quarters and when they have acquired it treasure it up, as though it were some divine image, in their inmost shrines, looking upon it as the cause of all good things and of all happiness.

And all the poor men that are possessed of that terrible disease, the love of money, but who, from not having any riches of their own which they can think worthy of their attention, fix their admiration on the wealth of their neighbours, and, for the purpose of offering adoration to it, come the first thing in the morning to the houses of those who have abundance, as if they were noble temples at which they were going to offer prayers, and to entreat blessings from their owners as if from the gods.

And to these men, Moses says, in another passage, “You shall not follow images (εἰδώλοις), and you shall not make to yourselves molten gods.” Teaching them, by figurative language, that it is not right to pay such honours to wealth as one would pay to the gods; for those celebrated materials of wealth, silver and gold, are made to be used, which, however, the multitude follows, looking upon them as the only causes of wealth which is proverbially called blind, and the especial sources of happiness.

These things, he calls idols (εἴδωλα), resembling shadows and phantoms, attached to nothing strong or stable. For they are carried along like an unstable wind, undergoing all kinds of turns and changes. A clear sign of this is that sometimes, when people do not expect it, it suddenly flies toward them, and when they think it has been securely seized, it jumps away again. And even when it is present, like the images (εἴδωλα) in mirrors, it deceives the sense, bewitches it, and presents things that do not endure as if they were substantial.

And why need I explain how unstable the wealth and pride of men are, which vain opinions decorate with showy colours? For, before now, some men have existed who have affirmed that all other animals and plants, of which there is any birth or any decay, are in one continual and incessant state of transition, and that the external sense of this transition is somewhat indistinct, inasmuch as the swiftness of nature surpasses the very quickest and most precise glance of the vision.

But not only are wealth, and glory, and all other such things mere phantoms (εἴδωλα) and unsubstantial (ἀμενηναὶ), but also all the other deceits which the inventors of fables have devised, puffing themselves up by reason of their ingenuity, while they have been raising a fortification of false opinion in opposition to the truth, bringing in God as if by some theatrical machine, in order to prevent the everlasting and only true existing God from being consigned to oblivion, are so likewise. But such men have adapted their falsehood to melodies, and rhythm, and metres, with a reference to what is persuasive, thinking that by these means they should easily cajole all who read their works.

Moreover, they also enlisted sculpture and painting as accomplices of deception, so that by means of well-crafted forms (ἰδέαις)of colors, shapes, and qualities, they might lead astray those who see them, and by enticing the leading senses—sight and hearing—the former with lifeless beauties, the latter with poetic melody, they might snatch away the soul, rendering it unstable and ungrounded. – Philo of Alexandria, De Specialibus Legibus (lib. i‑iv), Lines 1.18-1.29

Josephus:

Talmud:

The Cathodox make the claim that since a synagogue in Dura Europos (245 AD) contains wall-paintings, the testimony of earlier Jewish writers – who attest that images were forbidden in synagogues BEFORE Christ – must be rejected:

“Archaeological evidence from the Dura-Europos synagogue (c. 245 AD) in modern-day Syria reveals extensive wall paintings of biblical scenes and figures like Moses and Elijah. This discovery challenged the idea that ancient Judaism was strictly “iconoclastic.” Scholars cite this as evidence that Jews of the Second Temple period and the early centuries used religious art to teach and commemorate holy events.”

• What stupidity! We know from the Talmud that immediately after the temple was destroyed, the Jews began to allow wall-paintings in synagogues, and it was very controversial. Thus, any evidence of images existing in synagogues AFTER the temple was destroyed are moot! Not to be too condescending to you brain-dead idol-worshipers, but did you know the Jewish religion underwent a few small changes after the temple was COMPLETELY DESTROYED? Did you know the Jews ceased practicing Judaism after it became IMPOSSIBLE to practice Judaism? Did you know the Jews are the most wicked people in all of history? How is it that you insist on identifying yourselves with these people, when the Dura Europos CHURCH has ZERO images in the assembly room (in accordance with the sentiment expressed at the council of Elvira)? You have a synagogue and a church sitting right next to each other, and you choose to imitate the synagogue rather than the church!

Ashiyan the woodworker [spoke] in the name of Rabbi Yochanan: “Why are imperial images (eikoniyot/icons) forbidden?” Because they offer incense before them at the time they are being elevated [set up]. Rabbi Yochanan said: It is permitted to look at them at the time they are being taken down. What is the [scriptural] reason? “When the wicked are cut off, you shall see it” (Psalm 37:34). Writing that runs beneath figures [paintings/reliefs] or beneath imperial images (eikoniyot)—one may not look closely at them on the Sabbath. And not only that, but even on a weekday one may not look closely at imperial images (eikonot). And what is the [scriptural] reason? “Do not turn to idols” (Leviticus 19:4)—[meaning] do not turn to worship them. Rabbi Judah says: “Do not turn”—literally, even to look at them. – Jerusalem Talmud, Avodah Zarah 3.1.4

All statues are prohibited because they are worshipped (נֶעֱבָדִין) once a year. – Jerusalem Talmud, Avodah Zarah 3.1.2

Proclos ben Ploslos asked Rabban Gamliel in Acre, while [Rabban Gamliel] was washing in the bathhouse of Aphrodite. He said to him: “It is written in your Torah, ‘And nothing of the banned property shall cling to your hand’ (Deuteronomy 13:18). Why [then] are you washing in the bathhouse of Aphrodite?” He [Rabban Gamliel] said to him: “One does not respond [to words of Torah] in the bathhouse.” When he exited, he said to him: “I did not come into her domain; she came into my domain. People do not say, ‘Let us make a bathhouse as an adornment for Aphrodite,’ but rather they say, ‘Let us make Aphrodite as an adornment for the bathhouse.’ Alternatively: If they were to give you a large amount of money, would you enter before your idol naked, or having had a seminal emission, or urinating before her? Yet this [statue of Aphrodite] stands at the opening of the sewer gutter, and all people urinate before her! It was only stated [in scripture], ‘…their gods’ (Deuteronomy 12:3)—that which is treated as a god is forbidden, but that which is not treated as a god is permitted.” – Jerusalem Talmud, Avodah Zarah 3.1.2

• The Jews recognized that the actions performed toward idols are what constitute idolatry, not just being in their presence.

But with regard to one who hugs an idol, or one who kisses it, or one who cleans it, or one who sprays water before it, or one who washes it, or one who rubs it with oil, or one who dresses it, or one who puts its shoes on it, he transgresses a prohibition but is not liable to receive capital punishment. With regard to one who vows in an idol’s name and one who affirms his statement by an oath in its name, he transgresses a prohibition. – Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrid 60b.2

• This shows that the Jews did not consider kissing an image to be less of a sin than bowing down or offering incense to an image.

Rabbi Yirmeya says that this is what the mishna is saying: One who worships an idol in its typical manner of worship is liable to be executed; and furthermore, one who slaughters an animal as an idolatrous offering, and one who burns incense, and one who pours a libation, and the one who bows to an idol are all liable to be executed, and this applies even if this manner of worship is not the idol’s typical manner of worship. Even if the idol in question is not typically worshipped in these ways, these specific acts are still considered idol worship because these are the ways in which God is worshipped in the Temple. – Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrid 60b.5

Justin Martyr (160 AD):

For tell me, was it not God who commanded by Moses that no image or likeness of anything which was in heaven above or which was on the earth should be made, and yet who caused the brazen serpent to be made by Moses in the wilderness, and set it up for a sign by which those bitten by serpents were saved? Yet is He free from unrighteousness. For by this, as I previously remarked, He proclaimed the mystery, by which He declared that He would break the power of the serpent which occasioned the transgression of Adam, and [would bring] to them that believe on Him [who was foreshadowed] by this sign, i.e., Him who was to be crucified, salvation from the fangs of the serpent, which are wicked deeds, idolatries, and other unrighteous acts. Unless the matter be so understood, give me a reason why Moses set up the brazen serpent for a sign, and bade those that were bitten gaze at it, and the wounded were healed; and this, too, when he had himself commanded that no likeness of anything whatsoever should be made.” On this, another of those who came on the second day said, “You have spoken truly: we cannot give a reason. For I have frequently interrogated the teachers about this matter, and none of them gave me a reason: therefore continue what you are speaking; for we are paying attention while you unfold the mystery, on account of which the doctrines of the prophets are falsely slandered.” Then I replied, “Just as God commanded the sign to be made by the brazen serpent, and yet He is blameless; even so, though a curse lies in the law against persons who are crucified, yet no curse lies on the Christ of God, by whom all that have committed things worthy of a curse are saved. – Justin Martyr (160 AD) Dialogue with Trypho, Chapter 94

Clement of Alexandria (195 AD)

The second word [commandment] intimated that men ought not to take and confer the august power of God (which is the name, for this alone were many even yet capable of learning), and transfer His title to things created and vain, which human artificers have made, among which “He that is” is not ranked. For in His uncreated identity, “He that is” is absolutely alone. – Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata, Book 6, Chapter 16

Whence, O Plato, is that hint of the truth which you give? Whence this rich copiousness of diction, which proclaims piety with oracular utterance? The tribes of the barbarians, he says, are wiser than these; I know your teachers, even if you would conceal them. You have learned geometry from the Egyptians, astronomy from the Babylonians; the charms of healing you have got from the Thracians; the Assyrians also have taught you many things; but for the laws that are consistent with truth, and your sentiments respecting God, you are indebted to the Hebrews,

Who do not worship through vain deceits
The works of men, of gold, and brass, and silver, and ivory,
And images of dead men, of wood and stone,
Which other men, led by their foolish inclinations, worship;
But raise to heaven pure arms:
When they rise from bed, purifying themselves with water,
And worship alone the Eternal, who reigns for ever more.

– Clement of Alexandria (195 AD) Exhortation to the Heathen Chapter 6

Now if Moses commanded people not to make images in imitation of God, how can these women rightly make fake images of themselves in the mirror, counterfeiting their faces? Even the prophet Samuel, when he was sent to anoint one of Jesse’s sons as king, saw the oldest son—handsome and tall—and was ready to anoint him. But the Lord said to him, “Do not look at his appearance or his height, for I have rejected him. Man looks on the outward appearance, but the Lord looks at the heart.” So Samuel didn’t anoint the one with a beautiful body, but the one with a beautiful soul. If the Lord counts the natural beauty of the body as less than the soul’s beauty, what do you think He thinks of fake beauty? He rejects all lies completely. “For we walk by faith, not by appearance.” – Clement of Alexandria, Instructor of children (Paedagogus), Book 3, Chapter 2

Tertullian (197 AD)

Therefore, when forbidding the making of any likeness of things in heaven, on earth, and in the waters, He also reveals the reasons—namely, restraining the substance of idolatry. For He adds, “You shall not bow down to them, nor serve them.” Now, the form of the bronze serpent made afterward by Moses at the Lord’s command did not pertain to the purpose of idolatry, but for healing those who were afflicted by serpents. And I say nothing about what was figured by the cure. So also the golden cherubim and seraphim, formed on the ark as a simple ornament suited for the cover, having reasons far different from the condition of idolatry, on account of which the making of a likeness is forbidden, do not seem to contradict the law forbidding likenesses—since they are not found in that state of likeness for which making a likeness is forbidden. – Tertullian (200 AD), Against Marcion, Book 2, chapter 22

For you are under the delusion, like some others, that our god is an ass’s head. Cornelius Tacitus first put this notion into people’s minds. In the fifth book of his histories, beginning the (narrative of the) Jewish war with an account of the origin of the nation; and theorizing at his pleasure about the origin, as well as the name and the religion of the Jews, he states that having been delivered, or rather, in his opinion, expelled from Egypt, in crossing the vast plains of Arabia, where water is so scanty, they were in extremity from thirst; but taking the guidance of the wild asses, which it was thought might be seeking water after feeding, they discovered a fountain, and thereupon in their gratitude they consecrated a head of this species of animal. And so from that point, I think, it was presumed that we too, as relatives of the Jewish religion, are initiated into the same image. But indeed the same Cornelius Tacitus — that most loquacious of liars — relates in the same history that Pompey, when he had captured Jerusalem and for that reason had entered the temple to inspect the secrets of the Jewish religion, found no image there. Yet surely if worship was rendered to any visible object, the very place for its exhibition would be the shrine, especially because it did not fear outside observers, however vain the cult might be. For it was permitted only to the priests to enter, and the view of the others was forbidden by an outstretched veil. – Tertullian (197 AD), The Apology, Chapter 16

Origen of Alexandria (235 AD)

After this, wishing to prove that there is no difference between Jews and Christians, and those animals previously enumerated by him, he asserts that the Jews were “fugitives from Egypt, who never performed anything worthy of note, and never were held in any reputation or account.” Now, on the point of their not being fugitives, nor Egyptians, but Hebrews who settled in Egypt, we have spoken in the preceding pages. But if he thinks his statement, that “they were never held in any reputation or account,” to be proved, because no remarkable event in their history is found recorded by the Greeks, we would answer, that if one will examine their polity from its first beginning, and the arrangement of their laws, he will find that they were men who represented upon earth the shadow of a heavenly life, and that amongst them God is recognised as nothing else, save He who is over all things, and that amongst them no maker of images was permitted to enjoy the rights of citizenship. For neither painter nor image-maker existed in their state, the law expelling all such from it; that there might be no pretext for the construction of images—an art which attracts the attention of foolish men, and which drags down the eyes of the soul from God to earth. There was, accordingly, amongst them a law to the following effect: “Do not transgress the law, and make to yourselves a graven image, any likeness of male or female; either a likeness of any one of the creatures that are upon the earth, or a likeness of any winged fowl that flieth under the heaven, or a likeness of any creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth, or a likeness of any of the fishes which are in the waters under the earth.” The law, indeed, wished them to have regard to the truth of each individual thing, and not to form representations of things contrary to reality, feigning the appearance merely of what was really male or really female, or the nature of animals, or of birds, or of creeping things, or of fishes. Venerable, too, and grand was this prohibition of theirs: “Lift not up thine eyes unto heaven, lest, when thou seest the sun, and the moon, and the stars, and all the host of heaven, thou shouldst be led astray to worship them, and serve them.” – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 4, Chapter 31

Ambrose of Milan (339–397):

It is said, therefore, that in investigating the truth, we must observe what is seemly. We ought to look for what is true with the greatest care. We must not put forward falsehood for truth, nor hide the truth in darkness, nor fill the mind with idle, involved, or doubtful matters. What is so unseemly as to venerate (venerari) a wooden thing, which men themselves have made? What shows such darkness as to discuss subjects connected with geometry and astronomy (which they approve of), to measure the depths of space, to shut up heaven and earth within the limits of fixed numbers, to leave aside the grounds of salvation and to seek for error? Moses, learned as he was in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, did not approve of those things, but thought that kind of wisdom both harmful and foolish. Turning away therefrom, he sought God with all the desire of his heart, and thus saw, questioned, heard Him when He spoke. Who is more wise than he whom God taught, and who brought to nought all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and all the powers of their craft by the might of his works? He did not treat things unknown as well known, and so rashly accept them. Yet these philosophers, though they do not consider it contrary to nature, nor shameful for themselves to bow down to (adorare), and to ask help from an image (simulacra) which knows nothing, teach us that these two things mentioned in the words just spoken, which are in accordance both with nature and with virtue, ought to be avoided. – Ambrose, On The Duties of The Clergy, paragraphs 122-123

Gregory of Nyssa (335-394):

When, therefore, Moses grew in knowledge, he declared that he had seen God in the darkness, that is, that he had then come to know that what is divine is beyond all knowledge and comprehension, for the text says, Moses approached the dark cloud where God was. What God? He who made darkness his hiding place, as David says, who also was initiated into the mysteries in the same inner sanctuary. 165. When Moses arrived there, he was taught by word what he had formerly learned from darkness, so that, I think, the doctrine on this matter might be made firmer for us for being testified to by the divine voice. The divine word at the beginning forbids that the Divine be likened to any of the things known by men, since every concept which comes from some comprehensible image by an approximate understanding and by guessing at the divine nature constitutes an idol of God and does not proclaim God. 166. Religious virtue is divided into two parts, into that which pertains to the Divine and that which pertains to right conduct (for purity of life is a part of religion). Moses learns at first the things which must be known about God (namely, that none of those things known by human comprehension is to be ascribed to him). Then he is taught the other side of virtue, learning by what pursuits the virtuous life is perfected. — Gregory of Nyssa, On the Life of Moses, Book 2.164-166

John Chrysostom (347-407 AD):

Scripture is accustomed to call idols an abomination; hence also the statue standing upon the temple is called the abomination of desolation. “For when you see,” it says, “the abomination of desolation standing in the holy place; let the reader understand.” For since he led them away from being terrified by sensible things, he forbade them to make any image; and he called this an abomination, restraining them from afar from impiety; for “to abominate” is to hate with excess, as something unclean, as something accursed. Therefore, an abomination is called in Scripture that which is hateful and worthy of aversion. And every idol is such a thing. “And they worshipped what their own fingers had made. And a human bowed down, and a man was humbled.” For just as the worship of God leads to a height, so that of those idols humbles and brings down. For what is more wretched than a human who has fallen from salvation and has made the God of all an enemy, bowing to lifeless objects and serving stones? For God led us up to such an honor as to make us even higher than the heavens; but the devil was eager to bring down those who obey to such worthlessness, as to make them even more insensible than insensible things. Therefore, indeed, the prophet says: And a human bowed down, and a man was humbled. This accusation alone was sufficient to lead one who has a mind away from the disease. But since many people do not fear sins as much as punishments, he also brought on the chastisement, saying: I will not forgive them. I will not pardon, he says, I will not let go, I will not overlook, but I will demand justice and accountability for the things that have been transgressed. And now, enter into the rocks and hide yourselves in the earth from the face of the fear of the Lord. Having sufficiently ridiculed the folly of those who worship idols and having shown, from the manner of their creation, both their madness and the weakness of the idols, he again contends with his word, entrusting the examination of what has been said to the experience of the facts, and says: it was sufficient that they were made by men to show the folly of those being deceived; but since, as if stupefied by some drunkenness of impiety, they have been blinded to the manifest and clear facts, such evils will befall the city, so as to teach even the extremely insensible, how great is their weakness and how great is the power of God. – John Chrysostom, Commentary on Isaiah 2.9

And again, in speaking of this slavery, he said: “The incense and the oblation will be abolished and, furthermore, on the holy place will be the abomination of desolation: and accomplishment shall be given to the desolation until the end of time” (Daniel 9:27). When you hear him say: “Until the end of time,” what else is left for you Jews to look forward to? “And furthermore.” What does this mean? “Furthermore,” that is, in addition to what he has said, that is, in addition to the destruction of the sacrifice and the oblation, there will be some other greater evil. What is that evil? “On the holy place will be the abomination of desolation.” By the holy place he means the temple; by the abomination of desolation he means the statue set up in the temple by Antiochus, who destroyed the city. And he went on to say: “Desolation until the end.” It is true that Christ came into the world according to the flesh long after the day of Antiochus Epiphanes, but when he prophesied the captivity to come, he showed that Daniel had predicted it. This was his reason for saying: “When you see the abomination of desolation which was spoken of by Daniel the prophet, standing in the holy place—let him who reads understand” (Matthew 24:15). The Jews called every image and statue made by man an abomination. So by his veiled reference to that statue, Daniel showed both when and under whom the captivity would take place. As I showed before, Josephus also assured us that these words were spoken about the Romans. – John Chrysostom, Discourse 5 Against Judaizing Christians, Section 10 (Fathers of the Church vol. 68:134-135)

Augustine (354-430 AD):

The first commandment of the Decalogue is, as God says: “I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery. You shall not have strange gods before me. You shall not make for yourself a carved image, nor the likeness of anything that is in heaven above, nor of anything that moves in the waters under the earth. You shall not adore them, and you shall not serve them” (Exodus 20:2–5). To these words the blessed Augustine adds a very brief summary, saying: “In the first commandment it is forbidden to fashion any likeness of God out of human imagination—not because God has no image, but because no image of Him ought to be worshiped, except that Image which is the same as He is, and not even that in His place, but together with Him.” — Augustine of Hippo (as quoted by Agobard of Lyons), Book on the Images of the Saints, PL 104:199, (820 AD)

“We don’t worship images, but the people depicted in them!”

The Apostle Peter:

Through the mouths of others also that serpent is wont to speak in this wise: “We adore visible images in honour of the invisible God.” Now this is most certainly false. For if you really wished to worship the image of God, you would do good to man, and so worship the true image of God in him. For the image of God is in every man, though His likeness is not in all, but where the soul is benign and the mind pure. If, therefore, you wish truly to honour the image of God, we declare to you what is true, that you should do good to and pay honour and reverence to man, who is made in the image of God; that you minister food to the hungry, drink to the thirsty, clothing to the naked, hospitality to the stranger, and necessary things to the prisoner; and that is what will be regarded as truly bestowed upon God. And so far do these things go to the honour of God’s image, that he who does not these things is regarded as casting reproach upon the divine image. What, then, is that honour of God which consists in running from one stone or wooden figure to another, in venerating empty and lifeless figures as deities, and despising men in whom the image of God is of a truth? Yea, rather be assured, that whoever commits murder or adultery, or anything that causes suffering or injury to men, in all these the image of God is violated. For to injure men is a great impiety towards God. Whenever, therefore, you do to another what you would not have another do to you, you defile the image of God with undeserved distresses. Understand, therefore, that that is the suggestion of the serpent lurking within you, which persuades you that you may seem to be pious when you worship insensible things, and may not seem impious when you injure sensible and rational beings. – Recognitions of Clement, Book 5, Chapter 23

Melito of Sardis (160 AD):

There are, however, persons who say: It is for the honor of God that we make the image: in order, that is, that we may worship the God who is concealed from our view. But they are unaware that God is in every country, and in every place, and is never absent, and that there is not anything done and He knows it not. Yet you, despicable man! Within whom He is, and without whom He is, and above whom He is, have nevertheless gone and bought wood from the carpenter’s, and it is carved and made into an image insulting to God. To this you offer sacrifice, and do not know that the all-seeing eye sees you, and that the word of truth reproves you, and says to you: How can the unseen God be sculptured? Nay, it is the likeness of yourself that you make and worship. Because the wood has been sculptured, have you not the insight to perceive that it is still wood, or that the stone is still stone? … Though though you have eyes, do you not see? And though you have intelligence, do you not understand? Why do you  wallow on the ground, and offer supplication to things which are without sense? – Melito of Sardis, Fragments of Melito of Sardis, A Discourse Which Was in the Presence of Antoninus Caesar

Justin Martyr (160 AD):

And neither do we honour with many sacrifices and garlands of flowers such deities as men have formed and set in shrines and called gods; since we see that these are soulless and dead, and have not the form of God (for we do not consider that God has such a form as some say that they imitate to His honour), but have the names and forms of those wicked demons which have appeared. For why need we tell you who already know, into what forms the craftsmen, carving and cutting, casting and hammering, fashion the materials? And often out of vessels of dishonour, by merely changing the form, and making an image of the requisite shape, they make what they call a god; which we consider not only senseless, but to be even insulting to God, who, having ineffable glory and form, thus gets His name attached to things that are corruptible, and require constant service. And that the artificers of these are both intemperate, and, not to enter into particulars, are practised in every vice, you very well know; even their own girls who work along with them they corrupt. What infatuation! that dissolute men should be said to fashion and make gods for your worship, and that you should appoint such men the guardians of the temples where they are enshrined; not recognising that it is unlawful even to think or say that men are the guardians of gods. – Justin Martyr (160 AD), First Apology, Chapter 9

Origen of Alexandria (235 AD):

After this he compares the one who teaches to a person with an eye disease, and those who are learning to people suffering from eye disease; and he says that such a person blames those who see clearly, as though they were blind. Who then, we might say, are the ones among us who do not see? Is it not those who, from the greatness of the things in the world and the beauty of created works, are unable to lift up their eyes and perceive that one ought to worship, admire, and revere only the one who made these things—and that none of the things constructed by humans and adopted for the honor of gods should properly be revered, whether apart from the Creator God or even along with Him? – Origen, Against Celsus, Book 3, Chapter 77

For these different tribes erected temples and statues to those individuals above enumerated, whereas we have refrained from offering to the Divinity honour by any such means (seeing they are adapted rather to demons, which are somehow fixed in a certain place which they prefer to any other, or which take up their dwelling, as it were, after being removed (from one place to another) by certain rites and incantations), and are lost in reverential wonder at Jesus, who has recalled our minds from all sensible things, as being not only corruptible, but destined to corruption, and elevated them to honour the God who is over all with prayers and a righteous life, which we offer to Him as being intermediate between the nature of the uncreated and that of all created things, and who bestows upon us the benefits which come from the Father, and who as High Priest conveys our prayers to the supreme God. – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 3, Chapter 34

But observe whether the principles of our faith, harmonizing with the general ideas implanted in our minds at birth, do not produce a change upon those who listen candidly to its statements; for although a perverted view of things, with the aid of much instruction to the same effect, has been able to implant in the minds of the multitude the belief that images are gods, and that things made of gold, and silver, and ivory, and stone are deserving of worship, yet common sense forbids the supposition that God is at all a piece of corruptible matter, or is honoured when made to assume by men a form embodied in dead matter, fashioned according to some image or symbol of His appearance. And therefore we say at once of images that they are not gods, and of such creations (of art) that they are not to be compared with the Creator, but are small in contrast with the God who is over all, and who created, and upholds, and governs the universe. And the rational soul recognising, as it were, its relationship (to the divine), at once rejects what it for a time supposed to be gods, and resumes its natural love for its Creator; and because of its affection towards Him, receives Him also who first presented these truths to all nations through the disciples whom He had appointed, and whom He sent forth, furnished with divine power and authority, to proclaim the doctrine regarding God and His kingdom. – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 3, Chapter 40

For in our judgment all are intoxicated who address themselves to inanimate objects as to God. And why do I say “intoxicated?” “Insane” would be the more appropriate word for those who hasten to temples and worship images or animals as divinities. And they too are not less insane who think that images, fashioned by men of worthless and sometimes most wicked character, confer any honour upon genuine divinities.  – Origen (248 AD), Against Celsus, Book 3, Chapter 76

Athenagoras of Athens (176 AD):

But, since it is affirmed by some that, although these are only images (εἰκόνας), yet there exist gods in honour of whom they are made; and that the supplications and sacrifices presented to the images (εἰκόνες) are to be referred to the gods, and are in fact made to the gods; and that there is not any other way of coming to them, for

“’Tis hard for man
To meet in presence visible a God;”

and whereas, in proof that such is the fact, they adduce the energies (ἐνεργείας) possessed by certain images, let us examine into the power attached to their names. – Athenagoras (177 AD), A Plea for the Christians, Chapter 18

Lactantius (313 AD):

“What madness is it, then, either to form those objects that they themselves may afterwards fear, or to fear the things that they have formed? However, they say, “We do not fear the images themselves, but those beings after whose likeness they were formed, and to whose names they are dedicated.” No doubt you fear them for this reason: because you think that they are in heaven. For if they are gods, the case cannot be otherwise. So why, then, do you not raise your eyes to heaven? Why do you not invoke their names and offer sacrifices in the open air? Why do you look to walls, wood, and stone—rather than to the place where you believe them to be? What is the meaning of temples and altars? What, in short, is the meaning of the images themselves, which are memorials either of the dead or of the absent? For the idea of making likenesses was invented by men for this reason: that it might be possible to retain the memory of those who had either been removed by death or else separated by absence. How much better, therefore, is it, to leave vain and insensible objects and, instead, to turn our eyes in that direction where is the seat and dwelling place of the true God. – Lactantius (304–313 AD), The Divine Institutes, Book 2, chapter 5

Eusebius of Caesarea (260-339 AD):

Are they not again convicted of deifying “the creature rather than the Creator,” and the handiwork of the world but not the worker, with great risk and danger, and with mischief that must fall on their own head? But if they shall assert that they deify not the visible bodies of sun and moon and stars, nor yet the sensible parts of the world, but the powers (δυνάμεις), invisible in them, of the very God who is over all–for they say that God being One fills all things with various powers, and pervades all, and rules over all, but as existing in all and pervading all in an incorporeal and invisible manner, and that they rightly worship Him through the things which we have mentioned–why in the world therefore do they not reject the foul and unseemly fables concerning the gods as being unlawful and impious, and put out of sight the very books concerning them, as containing blasphemous and licentious teaching, and celebrate the One and Only and Invisible God openly and purely and without any foul envelopment?

For this was what those who had known the truth ought to do, and not to degrade and debase the venerable name of God into foul and lustful fables of things unspeakable; nor yet to shut themselves up in cells and dark recesses and buildings made by man, as if they would find God inside; nor to think that they are worshipping the Divine powers in statues made of lifeless matter, nor to suppose that by vapours of gore and filth steaming from the earth, and by the blood of slain animals they are doing things pleasing to God. Surely it became these men of wisdom and of lofty speech, as being set free from all these bonds of error, to impart of their physical speculations ungrudgingly to all men, and to proclaim as it were in naked truth to all, that they should admire (ἀποθαυμάζειν) not the things that are seen, but only the unseen Creator of things visible, and worship (θρησκεύειν) His invisible and incorporeal powers in ways invisible and incorporeal, not by kindling fire, nor yet by offerings of rams and bulls, nay, nor yet by imagining that they honour the Deity by garlands and statues and the building of temples, but by worshipping Him with purified thoughts and right and true doctrines, in dispassionate calmness of soul, and in growing as far as possible like unto Him. But no one ever yet, barbarian or Greek, began to show all men this truth except only our Saviour; who, having proclaimed to all nations an escape from their ancient error, procured abundantly for them all a way of return and of devotion to the one true and only God of the universe. Yet the men perversely wise who boasted of the highest philosophy of life, whereby as the inspired Apostle says, “though they knew God, they glorified Him not as God, neither gave thanks; but became vain in their reasonings, and their senseless heart was darkened. They professed indeed to be wise, but became fools… and worshipped and served the creature rather than the Creator, who is blessed for ever.” – Eusebius, Preparation of the Gospel, book 3, chapter 13

Augustine (354-430 AD):

We worship a God who is invisible. He cannot be seen by any bodily eye but is known only to very clean hearts, and few of us have those. This might seem to give pagans an excuse to ask, “Where is their God?” since, unlike us, they can show us their gods, visible to our eyes. This is why the foregoing psalm warned us in advance that the presence of our God is to be discerned in his works, for being enthroned in heaven above, he has done all that he willed in the heavens and on earth. Let the pagans show us their gods, it seems to be saying, for the idols of the Gentiles are fashioned of silver and gold, the work of human hands. We cannot display our God before your eyes, you pagans, though you ought to perceive him through his works; you, on the contrary, can point to the deities you worship. But do not let that lead you astray into empty fantasies. It would do you far more credit to admit you have nothing to show than to prove how blind your hearts are by demonstrating your gods to our bodily eyes. What are you showing us? Only gold and silver. – Augustine, Exposition 2 of Psalm 113, chapter 1

Moreover, we must consider ourselves distinct even from the so-called deities said to dwell within those stones or statues of wood, gold, and silver. For some, seeking to excuse themselves in some fashion, say: “We too know that the idols are vain things, but we do not worship the image itself.” And if you ask them what, then, they worship, they answer: “The divinities that dwell within the image. We bow before the visible form, but we adore the invisible.” But what are these invisible divinities? Let us hear it from our God, who speaks through the prophet: “All the gods of the nations are demons, but the Lord made the heavens” (Psalm 96:5). The demons are not worthy to dwell there. The prophet mocks the demons in one way, and the idols in another. How does he mock the idols? “The statues of the nations are silver and gold” (Psalm 115:4). He does not mention stone or wood, but chooses as the object of ridicule what men esteem most, what they consider precious — the very materials they prize. Thus they are silver and gold, yet still “the work of human hands” (Psalm 115:4). And in what sense are they the work of man? Was it man who made them to be gold or silver? No — that was the work of God. What then did man do? He made them have eyes but not see (Psalm 115:5). Such is the work of man when he fashions his god — a work he himself would not wish to be done to him by the God who made him. He has made a blind god, though he would never wish to have been created blind by God. What more need be said? The psalmist names gold and silver, the most precious of metals, and selects them precisely to mock their divinities, according to what men themselves value most. But is there truly any difference in what he mocks? There is indeed a difference between gold and wood, for gold is more precious than wood; yet as to seeing or not seeing, having eyes or lacking them, the two materials do not differ in the least. Different in use and brightness, they are equal in blindness. — Augustine, Sermon 23B, chapter 8

And lest any of them should say, I do not worship an image, but that which the images signify, he immediately added: “And they worshiped and served the creature rather than the Creator” (Romans 1:25). Understand this prudently. For they worship either an image or a creature. He who worships an image turns the truth of God into a lie. For the sea is a real thing; but Neptune is a lie made by man, the truth of God turned into a lie: because God made the sea, but man made the image of Neptune. In the same way, God made the sun; but when man makes an image of the sun, he turns the truth of God into a lie. But lest they say, I do not worship an image, I worship the sun, for this reason he said, “They worshiped the creature rather than the Creator” (Romans 1:25). – Augustine, Sermon 197, Against the Pagans, chapter 1 – PL 38:1022

Cathodox statements about icons:

John of Damascus:

“I do not worship matter but I worship the Creator of matter, Who for my sake became material and deigned to dwell in matter, Who through matter effected my salvation. I will not cease from worshipping the matter through which my salvation has been effected.” – Against Those Who Decry Holy Images, 1,16

“If the image of the king is the king, the image of Christ is Christ, and the image of a saint is the saint, and if power is not divided nor glory distributed, honouring the image becomes honouring the one who is set forth in the image.” – Against Those Who Decry Holy Images, part 1, chapter 36

“Possibly a contentious unbeliever will maintain that we, worshipping images in our churches, are convicted of praying to lifeless idols. Far be it from us to do this. Faith makes Christians, and God, who cannot deceive, works miracles. We do not rest contented with mere colouring. With the material picture before our eyes we see the invisible God through the visible representation, and glorify Him as if present….” – Against Those Who Decry Holy Images, chapter 141]

 Second Council of Nicaea (787 AD) – Seventh Ecumenical Council (Schaff’s Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers, Vol 14, p.550–551):

[Theodore, bishop of Myra, then read the same confession, and was received. The next bishop who asked to be received read as follows: (col. 60)]

Theodosius, the humble Christian, to the holy and Ecumenical Synod: I confess and I agree to (συντίθεμαι) and I receive and I salute and I venerate in the first place the spotless image of our Lord Jesus Christ, our true God, and the holy image of her who bore him without seed, the holy Mother of God, and her help and protection and intercessions each day and night as a sinner to my aid I call for, since she has confidence with Christ our God, as he was born of her. Likewise also I receive and venerate the images of the holy and most laudable Apostles, prophets, and martyrs and the fathers and cultivators of the desert. Not indeed as gods (God forbid!) do I ask all these with my whole heart to pray for me to God, that he may grant me through their intercessions to find mercy at his hands at the day of judgment, for in this I am but showing forth more clearly the affection and love of my soul which I have borne them from the first. Likewise also I venerate and honour and salute the relics of the Saints as of those who fought for Christ and who have received grace from him for the healing of diseases and the curing of sicknesses and the casting out of devils, as the Christian Church has received from the holy Apostles and Fathers even down to us today.

Moreover, I am well pleased that there should be images in the churches of the faithful, especially the image of our Lord Jesus Christ and of the Holy Mother of God, of every kind of material, both gold and silver and of every color, so that his incarnation may be set forth to all men. Likewise there may be painted the lives of the Saints and Prophets and Martyrs, so that their struggles and agonies may be set forth in brief, for the stirring up and teaching of the people, especially of the unlearned.

For if the people go forth with lights and incense to meet the laurata and images of the Emperors when they are sent to cities or rural districts, they honour surely not the tablet covered over with wax, but the Emperor himself. How much more is it necessary that in the churches of Christ our God, the image of God our Saviour and of his spotless Mother and of all the holy and blessed fathers and ascetics should be painted?

The Decree of the Council:

(Found in Labbe and Cossart, Concilia. Tom. VII., col. 552.)

The holy, great, and Ecumenical Synod which by the grace of God and the will of the pious and Christ-loving Emperors, Constantine and Irene, his mother, was gathered together for the second time at Nice, the illustrious metropolis of Bithynia, in the holy church of God which is named Sophia, having followed the tradition of the Catholic Church, hath defined as follows:

Christ our Lord, who hath bestowed upon us the light of the knowledge of himself, and hath redeemed us from the darkness of idolatrous madness, having espoused to himself the Holy Catholic Church without spot or defect, promised that he would so preserve her: and gave his word to this effect to his holy disciples when he said: “Lo! I am with you always, even unto the end of the world,” which promise he made, not only to them, but to us also who should believe in his name through their word. But some, not considering of this gift, and having become fickle through the temptation of the wily enemy, have fallen from the right faith; for, withdrawing from the traditions of the Catholic Church, they have erred from the truth and as the proverb saith: “The husbandmen have gone astray in their own husbandry and have gathered in their hands nothingness,” because certain priests, priests in name only, not in fact, had dared to speak against the God-approved ornament of the sacred monuments, of whom God cries aloud through the prophet, “Many pastors have corrupted my vineyard, they have polluted my portion.”

And, forsooth, following profane men, led astray by their carnal sense, they have calumniated the Church of Christ our God, which he hath espoused to himself, and have failed to distinguish between holy and profane, styling the images of our Lord and of his Saints by the same name as the statues of diabolical idols. Seeing which things, our Lord God (not willing to behold his people corrupted by such manner of plague) hath of his good pleasure called us together, the chief of his priests, from every quarter, moved with a divine zeal and brought hither by the will of our princes, Constantine and Irene, to the end that the traditions of the Catholic Church may receive stability by our common decree. Therefore, with all diligence, making a thorough examination and analysis, and following the trend of the truth, we diminish nought, we add nought, but we preserve unchanged all things which pertain to the Catholic Church, and following the Six Ecumenical Synods, especially that which met in this illustrious metropolis of Nice, as also that which was afterwards gathered together in the God-protected Royal City.

We detest and anathematize Arius and all the sharers of his absurd opinion; also Macedonius and those who following him are well styled “Foes of the Spirit” (Pneumatomachi). We confess that our Lady, St. Mary, is properly and truly the Mother of God, because she was the Mother after the flesh of One Person of the Holy Trinity, to wit, Christ our God, as the Council of Ephesus has already defined when it cast out of the Church the impious Nestorius with his colleagues, because he taught that there were two Persons [in Christ]. With the Fathers of this synod we confess that he who was incarnate of the immaculate Mother of God and Ever-Virgin Mary has two natures, recognizing him as perfect God and perfect man, as also the Council of Chalcedon hath promulgated, expelling from the divine Atrium [aulhj] as blasphemers, Eutyches and Dioscorus; and placing in the same category Severus, Peter and a number of others, blaspheming in divers fashions. Moreover, with these we anathematize the fables of Origen, Evagrius, and Didymus, in accordance with the decision of the Fifth Council held at Constantinople. We affirm that in Christ there be two wills and two operations according to the reality of each nature, as also the Sixth Synod, held at Constantinople, taught, casting out Sergius, Honorius, Cyrus, Pyrrhus, Macarius, and those who agree with them, and all those who are unwilling to be reverent.

To make our confession short, we keep unchanged all the ecclesiastical traditions handed down to us, whether in writing or verbally, one of which is the making of pictorial representations, agreeable to the history of the preaching of the Gospel, a tradition useful in many respects, but especially in this, that so the incarnation of the Word of God is shown forth as real and not merely phantastic, for these have mutual indications and without doubt have also mutual significations.

We, therefore, following the royal pathway and the divinely inspired authority of our Holy Fathers and the traditions of the Catholic Church (for, as we all know, the Holy Spirit indwells her), define with all certitude and accuracy that just as the figure of the precious and life-giving Cross, so also the venerable and holy images, as well in painting and mosaic as of other fit materials, should be set forth in the holy churches of God, and on the sacred vessels and on the vestments and on hangings and in pictures both in houses and by the wayside, to wit, the figure of our Lord God and Saviour Jesus Christ, of our spotless Lady, the Mother of God, of the honourable Angels, of all Saints and of all pious people. For by so much more frequently as they are seen in artistic representation, by so much more readily are men lifted up to the memory of their prototypes, and to a longing after them; and to these should be given due salutation and honourable reverence (ἀσπασμὸν καὶ τιμητικὴν προσκύνησιν), not indeed that true worship of faith (λατρείαν) which pertains alone to the divine nature; but to these, as to the figure of the precious and life-giving Cross and to the Book of the Gospels and to the other holy objects, incense and lights may be offered according to ancient pious custom. For the honour which is paid to the image passes on to that which the image represents, and he who reveres the image reveres in it the subject represented. For thus the teaching of our holy Fathers, that is the tradition of the Catholic Church, which from one end of the earth to the other hath received the Gospel, is strengthened. Thus we follow Paul, who spake in Christ, and the whole divine Apostolic company and the holy Fathers, holding fast the traditions which we have received. So we sing prophetically the triumphal hymns of the Church, “Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Sion; Shout, O daughter of Jerusalem. Rejoice and be glad with all thy heart. The Lord hath taken away from thee the oppression of thy adversaries; thou art redeemed from the hand of thine enemies. The Lord is a King in the midst of thee; thou shalt not see evil any more, and peace be unto thee forever.”

Those, therefore who dare to think or teach otherwise, or as wicked heretics to spurn the traditions of the Church and to invent some novelty, or else to reject some of those things which the Church hath received (e.g., the Book of the Gospels, or the image of the cross, or the pictorial icons, or the holy reliques of a martyr), or evilly and sharply to devise anything subversive of the lawful traditions of the Catholic Church or to turn to common uses the sacred vessels or the venerable monasteries, if they be Bishops or Clerics, we command that they be deposed; if religious or laics, that they be cut off from communion.

[After all had signed, the acclamations began (col. 576).]

The holy Synod cried out: So we all believe, we all are so minded, we all give our consent and have signed. This is the faith of the Apostles, this is the faith of the orthodox, this is the faith which hath made firm the whole world. Believing in one God, to be celebrated in Trinity, we salute the honourable images! Those who do not so hold, let them be anathema. Those who do not thus think, let them be driven far away from the Church. For we follow the most ancient legislation of the Catholic Church. We keep the laws of the Fathers. We anathematize those who add anything to or take anything away from the Catholic Church. We anathematize the introduced novelty of the revilers of Christians. We salute the venerable images. We place under anathema those who do not do this. Anathema to them who presume to apply to the venerable images the things said in Holy Scripture about idols. Anathema to those who do not salute the holy and venerable images. Anathema to those who call the sacred images idols. Anathema to those who say that Christians resort to the sacred images as to gods. Anathema to those who say that any other delivered us from idols except Christ our God. Anathema to those who dare to say that at any time the Catholic Church received idols.

Many years to the Emperors, etc., etc.

And if anyone does not so believe, but undertakes to debate the matter further and is evil affected with regard to the veneration due the sacred images, such an one our holy ecumenical council (fortified by the inward working of the Spirit of God, and by the traditions of the Fathers and of the Church) anathematises. Now anathema is nothing less than complete separation from God.

Letter from Tarasios and the Council to the Emperors

The sacred images of our Lord Jesus Christ… every depiction of the Gospel stories, and also of our immaculate Lady the holy Theotokos and the holy angels… and of all the saints, both on panels and on walls, on sacred vessels and vestments — as God’s holy catholic church received from the beginning, and as was laid down in law by both the holy originators of our teaching and our holy inspired fathers who succeeded them. – Letter from Tarasios and the Council to the Emperors, The Acts of the Second Council of Nicea (787), Richard Price, pg. 582-583

• I ask, if the holy catholic church really received this doctrine from the beginning and laid it down in law, where is the evidence for that? This evidence would end the debate immediately. Show me the earliest church father teaching this.

Orthodox Church in America:

In the Orthodox Church the icons bear witness to the reality of God’s presence with us in the mystery of faith. The icons are not just human pictures or visual aids to contemplation and prayer. They are the witnesses of the presence of the Kingdom of God to us, and so of our own presence to the Kingdom of God in the Church. It is the Orthodox faith that icons are not only permissible, but are spiritually necessary because “the Word became flesh and dwelt among us” (Jn 1.14). Christ is truly man and, as man, truly the “icon of the invisible God” (Col 1.15; 1 Cor 11.7; 2 Cor 4.4).

Josiah Trenham:

“Venerating the holy icons is extremely important, Saint Basil the Great says, because the veneration that you offer to the icon, to the Lord, to his mother, to the saints, to the angels, passes to the prototype. This is something that we do. And we ALL do it in practice. We venerate icons. And we do it in anticipation of seeing the saints face-to-face, and being with Christ in His kingdom soon. This is our hope, this is our anticipation.”

Peter Heers:

“The face of the Father is the face of the incarnate Son. So what face are we gonna be dwelling on and looking at? Right here! The one who is incarnate! The one who is in all the icons. Why is it so important to have icons? All of you iconoclasts out there, what are you doing? How can you have blank walls, when the whole point is to see the face of God? He’s been revealed to us! And that face, we will see. And He will judge us. And we will see Him for eternity. And that is the whole point! How can you have blank walls, while walls in your churches? You have no idea what you’re doing.! Iconoclasts are HERETICS! Of the WORST kind! How can you not want to see the face of Christ? How can you be against icons? How can you image icons are a bad thing? BOW DOWN and venerate that face! That is your judge! That is your goal, to see that face eternally and to be in communion with Him. This is what it’s all about, to see the face of God.”

Fr. Spyridon:

“Not only are icons permissible, they are necessary. They are necessary in our worship. The council declared that every church must have holy icons. Every Christian home, our vestments, our church vessels…. But in regard to the holy icons, the council declared that we must all reverently venerate the holy images, because icons are part of the way that we are sanctified. They draw us closer, both to the one who is portrayed, whose image the icon carries, and to the whole heavenly realm.”

Fr. Moses:

“The church said, ‘Without the veneration of icons, there always comes a distortion of Christ.'”

4:17: “Then we move onto things like icons, where historically speaking the church always venerated icons, that icons were a part of the Christian faith, that they were a natural expression of what we believe, and that they were a part of Christian worship from the very beginning.”

Jay Dyer:

“If we look even in the Old Testament, typically when a Protestant has a problem with this idea, they’ll say, ‘Oh, the Ten Commandments say you can’t do this, you can’t have images, you can’t do that, you can’t bow before anything that’s created.’ They view it in this legalistic way, as if the action of bowing itself is the root of the idolatry, when it’s actually the motivation of the heart that is the root of the idolatry. The bowing or the bodily expressions are just the external manifestations of what is in the heart and the mind.

So it’s not really so much about that, because you’ll notice in Genesis 42:7, Joseph’s family bows and prostrates themselves before Joseph. In 2 Kings 2:15, the prophets bow and prostrate themselves before Elijah. And if you look at Romans 13:7, Paul says to give honor to whom honor is due. So, there’s nothing wrong with giving honor when honor is due. In the ancient world, there was nothing wrong with reverencing and prostrating. Joseph even bows before Pharaoh.

There’s also the example in the case of the Ark of the Covenant, where Solomon prays and everybody bows themselves towards the Temple, prostrating themselves in front of the Ark. These are all created images; they’re all created things. The Tabernacle and the Temple itself were full of iconography—full of images of angels, seraphim, and so forth. So, this argument is just based on ignorance, where people don’t even know that the Temple itself was full of iconography.

Even if you just think of this as an argument John of Damascus makes—just think of the word itself. The Bible itself is a bunch of letters, which are symbols and words. They’re just another type of iconographic representation. So, if you have the word ‘God,’ ‘YHWH,’ or ‘LORD,’ those are symbols that refer to God. There’s nothing inherently wrong with created symbols referencing God; in fact, it’s absolutely necessary for meaningful conversation, meaningful discussion, and the Logos itself—the logical, meaningful transference of meaning. Logos and logic require the ability to signify divine realities in created forms. So, it’s just a lower level of thinking to believe that the symbolic presentation of an image is somehow evil, but a word—which is also a symbolic representation—is fine. Words themselves are symbol-images; they’re considered good, but pictures are considered bad? They’re both pictures, obviously. That’s why Genesis is important. If you have a God that interacts with creation, there’s already some level of an incarnational principle—or at least a way for us to understand it.

If we go a little bit further in time, you will see that early Christian worship included frescoes and this kind of explanation. So did Judean worship too, by the way. I have a screenshot of this that I’m gonna put up here. This is a very famous synagogue—Dura Europa, or something like that. You’ll notice there, this is from some blog, but ancient Judean synagogues were filled with icons. Scripture required the inside of the Jerusalem Temple to display all kinds of angels. Icons in the Jewish synagogue depicted numerous scenes from Scripture. This is the Dura-Europos synagogue, dated to 244 A.D. You’ll see images of the burning bush, the rescue of Moses, the miracle of the water, Aaron and the Temple, Samuel and David, the Ark of the Covenant, and Ezekiel’s vision of the dry bones. The blog has all those pictures. I’ll put the link into the chat if anybody wants to go look at the different images that the blog has. I can’t vouch for that blog—I don’t know who runs it, it’s just the one that popped up. Go ahead.

Yeah, so we can see that at the time, be it in Christian worship or Jewish worship, icons were present. The only ones that did not have these kinds of icons, or did not allow images, were the Gnostics. There were some Christian councils influenced by Gnosticism—like the Council of Elvira—which forbade images. It’s the same council, by the way, that first forbade priests to marry. So, it’s completely linked to a rejection of the body.

David Erhan (6:48):

Some like to argue that the distinction between adoration and veneration, which is crucial to this discussion, does not exist in Christianity, that it is a made-up distinction. As a matter of fact there is biblical basis for this distinction, and I think one of the clearest parts of this aside from the examples of holy people and temples being venerated, which I will be talking about in the preceding slides, is Matthew 4:10 and Luke 4 8. “Then says Jesus unto him, get thee behind me, Satan. For it is written, Thou shalt Worship the Lord thy God, and him only shalt thou serve now.”