I. References to twofold order of leadershipII. References to threefold order of leadership
III. Interchangeable uses of “bishop” and “presbyter”
IV. Authority and duties of church leadership
V. Qualifications of and counsel to the clergy
VI. Material support of the clergy
VII. References to married clergy
VIII. The beginnings of clerical celibacy
IX. Clergy and laity distinctions
X. Priesthood of church leaders
XI. Priesthood of all believers
I. References to twofold order of leadership
To all the saints in Christ Jesus who are in Philippi, with the bishops and deacons. Phil. 1:1
A bishop then must be blameless, the husband of one wife, temperate. . . . Likewise deacons must be reverent, not double-tongued. 1 Tim. 2:2, 8
Therefore, appoint for yourselves bishops and deacons worthy of the Lord. Didache (c. 80–140, E), 7.381
Preaching throughout countries and cities, the apostles appointed the first-fruits of their labors to be bishops and deacons of those who would believe afterwards. However, they first tested them by the Spirit. This was no new thing. Indeed, many ages before, it had been written concerning bishops and deacons. For the Scriptures say in a certain place, “I will appoint their bishops in righteousness and their deacons in faith” [Isa. 60:17, LXX]. Clement of Rome (c. 96, W), 1.16
It is necessary to abstain from all of these things, being subject to the presbyters and deacons, as unto God and Christ. Polycarp (c. 135, E), 1.34
II. References to threefold order of leadership
I have had the privilege of seeing you, through Damas, your most worthy bishop, and through your worthy presbyters, Bassus and Apollonius, and through my fellow servant, the deacon Sotio. Ignatius (c. 105, E), 1.59
I exhort you to study to do all things with a divine harmony, while your bishop presides in the place of God, and your presbyters in the place of the assembly of the apostles, along with your deacons. Ignatius (c. 105, E), 1.61
. . . with your most admirable bishop, and the well-formed spiritual crown of your presbytery, and the deacons, who are according to God. Ignatius (c. 105, E), 1.64.
There is one bishop, along with the presbyters and deacons, my fellow servants. Ignatius (c. 105, E), 1.81
Innumerable commands like these are written in the Holy Scriptures, pertaining to chosen persons: some to presbyters, some to bishops, some to deacons. Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.294
According to my opinion, the grades here in the church, of bishops, presbyters, and deacons, are imitations of the angelic glory, and of that arrangement which (the Scriptures say) awaits those who, following the footsteps of the apostles, have lived in perfection of righteousness according to the Gospel. Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.505
What if a bishop, a deacon, a widow, a virgin, a teacher, or even a martyr has fallen from the rule? On that account, will heresies appear to possess the truth? Tertullian (c. 197, W), 3.244
And so it came to pass that [among the heretics] today one man is their bishop, tomorrow another. Today he is a deacon who tomorrow is a reader. Today he is a presbyter who tomorrow is a layman. For even on laymen do they impose the functions of priesthood. Tertullian (c. 197, W), 3.263
Cyprian, to the presbyters and deacons, brethren abiding at Rome. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.281
Cyprian, to the presbyters and deacons, his beloved brethren. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.282
Caldonius to Cyprian and his fellow presbyters abiding at Carthage. Letter to Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.297
To Caecilius Cyprian, bishop of the church of Carthage, Moyses and Maximus, presbyters, and Nicostratus and Rufinius, deacons. Letter to Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.302
Deacons should remember that the Lord chose apostles—that is, bishops and overseers. In contrast, the apostles appointed deacons for themselves. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.366
To all our fellows in the ministry throughout the world—bishops, presbyters, and deacons—and to the whole catholic church under heaven. Malchion (c. 270, E), 6.169
All these bishops, presbyters, and deacons had suffered martyrdom in the prison at Alexandria. Phileas (c. 307, E), 6.164
Archelaus [a bishop] sends greeting to the presbyter Diodorus, his honorable son. My dearly beloved friend, the receipt of your letter has caused me to rejoice exceedingly. Disputation of Archelaus and Manes (c. 320, E), 6.215
Paul himself has laid our foundation, that is, the foundation of the church. And he has put us in trust of the law—ordaining deacons, presbyters, and bishops. Disputation of Archelaus and Manes (c. 320, E), 6.229
For [the bishops] are your high priests, as the presbyters are your priests. You have the deacons in place of the Levites. . . . But He who is above all these is the High Priest [Christ]. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.410
When [Moses] made constitutions and divine laws, he distinguished among the things to be performed by the high priests, the priests, and the Levites. He distributed to each one his proper and suitable office in the divine service. The priests were not to meddle with the things that were allotted for the high priests. And the Levites were not to meddle with the things allotted to the priests. . . . Being taught by the Lord this series of things, [the apostles] allotted the functions of the high-priesthood to the bishops, those of the priesthood to the presbyters, and the ministries under both of them to the deacons. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.499
Those who are called by us bishops, presbyters, and deacons were made such by prayer and by the laying on of hands. The difference of their names shows the difference of their duties. . . . For it is not lawful for a deacon to offer the sacrifice, to baptize, or to give either the greater or the lesser blessing. A presbyter many not perform ordination. For it is not agreeable to holiness to have this order perverted. For “God is not the God of confusion.” So subordinate persons should not tyrannically assume functions that belong to their superiors. . . . However, someone may accuse Philip the deacon or Ananias, the faithful brother, [of doing this]. For the one baptized the eunuch; the other baptized Paul. However, such an accuser does not understand what we are saying. We are only saying that no one snatches the priestly dignity to himself. He either receives it from God—as did Melchizedek and Job—or from a high priest—as did Aaron from Moses. So Philip and Ananias did not ordain themselves, but were appointed by Christ, the High Priest. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.499, 500
Do not receive any stranger—whether bishop, presbyter, or deacon—without commendatory letters. And when such are offered, let them be examined. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.502
III. Interchangeable uses of “bishop” and “presbyter”
From Miletus he sent to Ephesus and called for the elders of the church. And when they had come to him, he said to them: . . . “Take heed to yourselves and to all the flock, among which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers [bishops], to shepherd the church of God.” Acts 20:17, 18, 28
Do not neglect the gift that is in you, which was given to you by prophecy with the laying on of the hands of the presbytery. 1 Tim. 4:14
The elders [presbyters] who are among you I exhort, I who am a fellow elder and a witness of the sufferings of Christ, and also a partaker of the glory that will be revealed: Shepherd the flock of God which is among you, serving as overseers [bishops]. 1 Pet. 5:1, 2
Our sin will not be small if we eject from oversight [or, from the episcopate] those who have blamelessly and holily fulfilled its duties. Blessed are those presbyters who have obtained a fruitful and perfect departure, having finished their course before now. Clement of Rome (c. 96, W), 1.17
We refer them to that tradition which originates from the apostles and is preserved by the successions of presbyters in the churches. . . . The faith preached to men comes down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops. Irenaeus (c. 180, E/W), 1.415
The church nourishes such presbyters, of whom also the prophet says: “I will give your rulers in peace, and your bishops in righteousness.” Irenaeus (c. 180, E/W), 1.498
Now, all these heretics are of much later date than the bishops to whom the apostles committed the churches. . . . Therefore, those who desert the preaching of the church, call into question the knowledge of the holy presbyters. Irenaeus (c. 180, E/W), 1.547, 548
Polycarp, too, was instructed by apostles, and he spoke with many who had seen Christ. Furthermore, the apostles in Asia appointed him bishop of the church in Smyrna. Irenaeus (c. 180, E/W), 1.416
Those presbyters who preceded us, and who were conversant with the apostles, did not hand down those opinions to you. For, while I was yet a body, I saw you in Lower Asia with Polycarp. Irenaeus (c. 180, E/W), 1.568
Anicetus [bishop of Rome] maintained that he was bound to adhere to the usage of the presbyters who preceded him. Irenaeus (c. 180, E/W), 1.569
Looking to the appointed bishop, . . . John said, “This [youth] I commit to you in all earnestness.” . . . And the presbyter took home the youth committed to him. Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 5.603
In respect of that which our fellow presbyters . . . wrote to me, I have not been able to reply by myself, since, from the first commencement of my episcopacy, I made up my mind to do nothing on my own private opinion. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.283
Caldonius to Cyprian and his fellow presbyters abiding at Carthage. Letter to Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.297
You will hear everything most fully from Primitivus, our co-presbyter. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.319
IV. Authority and duties of church leadership
We urge you, brethren, to recognize those who labor among you, and are over you in the Lord and admonish you, and to esteem them very highly in love for their work’s sake. 1 Thess. 5:12
Obey those who rule over you, and be submissive, for they watch out for your souls, as those who must give account. Heb. 13:17
My child, remember night and day the one who speaks the word of God to you. Honor him as the Lord, for wherever His Lordship is taught, there the Lord is. Didache (c. 80–140, E), 7.378
Let us honor those who have the rule over us. Clement of Rome (c. 96, W), 1.11
Let everyone reverence the deacons as an appointment of Jesus Christ; and the bishop as Jesus Christ, who is the Son of the Father; and the presbyters as the Sanhedrin of God and assembly of the apostles. Apart from these, there is no church. Ignatius (c. 105, E), 1.67
He who does anything apart from the bishop, the presbyters, and the deacons, such a man is not pure in his conscience. Ignatius (c. 105, E), 1.69
It is necessary to abstain from all of these things, being subject to the presbyters and deacons, as unto God and Christ. Polycarp (c. 135, E), 1.34
Of giving [baptism], the chief priest (who is the bishop) has the right. In the next place, the presbyters and deacons have the right. Yet, they should not do so without the bishop’s authority, on account of the honor of the church. For when it is preserved, peace is preserved. Tertullian (c. 198, W), 3.677
We must rise when a bishop or a presbyter comes. In Leviticus, it says: “You will rise up before the face of the elder and you will honor the person of the presbyter” [Lev. 19:32]. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.553
If the sinner sees that the bishop and deacons are innocent and unblamable and that the flock is pure, he will not venture to despise their authority. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.399
Neither a presbyter nor a deacon should ordain anyone from the laity into the clergy. Rather, the presbyter is only to teach, to offer, to baptize, and to bless the people. And the deacon is to minister to the bishop and to the presbyters. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.432
It is not lawful for them, if they are unmarried when they are ordained, to be married afterwards. . . . We do not permit any of the clergy to take a wife who is a prostitute, a servant, a widow, or one who is divorced. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.457
Let the bishop bless the water or the oil. But if he is not there, let the presbyter bless it, the deacon standing by. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.494
V. Qualifications of and counsel to the clergy
A bishop then must be blameless, the husband of one wife, temperate, sober-minded, of good behavior, hospitable, able to teach; not given to wine, not violent, not greedy for money, but gentle, not quarrelsome, not covetous. 1 Tim. 3:2-3
Likewise deacons must be reverent, not doubletongued, not given to much wine, not greedy for money. 1 Tim. 3:8
You will tell those who preside over the church to direct their ways in righteousness, so that they will receive in full the promises with great glory. Hermas (c. 150, W), 2.11
Those square white stones which fitted exactly into each other, are apostles, bishops, teachers, and deacons, who have lived in godly purity, and have acted as bishops, teachers, and deacons chastely and reverently. Hermas (c. 150, W), 2.14
But when persons in authority themselves—I mean, the very deacons, presbyters, and bishops—take flight, how will a layman be able to discern? Tertullian (c. 212, W), 4.122
If certain teachers relax individual commandments to you, while looking for your gifts or fearing your persons, . . . I am compelled to speak the truth. . . . You trust the gift by which the teachers shut up their mouths and become silent, not telling you the divine commands. Commodianus (c. 240, W), 4.214
The apostle bids that such persons should be teachers. Let him be a patient ruler. Let him know when he may relax the reins. Let him terrify at first, and then anoint with honey. And let him be the first to practice what he teaches. Commodianus (c. 240, W), 4.216
We exhort those who are mighty in word and of blameless life to rule over churches. We reject those who are ambitious to rule. . . . And if those who govern in the church . . . rule well, they rule in accordance with the divine commands and never allow themselves to be led astray by worldly policy. Origen (c. 248, E), 4.668
In respect of that which our fellow presbyters . . . wrote to me, I have not been able to reply by myself, since, from the first commencement of my episcopacy, I made up my mind to do nothing on my own private opinion, without your advice [i.e., the advice of the presbyters and deacons] and without the consent of the people. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.283
What danger should we not fear from the Lord’s displeasure, when some of the presbyters, remembering neither the Gospel nor their own place . . . nor the bishop now placed over them, claim to themselves entire authority—a thing that was never in any way done under our predecessors . . . ? Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.289
In the meanwhile, let those certain [presbyters] among you who are rash, incautious, and boastful . . . be suspended from offering [the Eucharist]. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.290
[Cornelius] was not one who suddenly attained to the episcopacy. Rather, he was promoted through all the ecclesiastical offices. Having often deserved well of the Lord in divine administrations, he ascended by all the grades of religious service to the lofty summit of the priesthood. . . . He was quiet, meek, and of the type who are chosen of God to this office, having regard to the modesty of his virgin continence. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.329
Those, therefore, who have brought grievous sins upon themselves—that is, who, by sacrificing to idols, have offered sacrilegious sacrifices—cannot claim to themselves the priesthood of God, nor make any prayer for their brethren in His sight. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.364
In the ordinations of priests, we should choose no one but unstained and upright ministers. In that way, the ministers who offer sacrifices to God with holy and worthy hands, may be heard in the prayers that they make for the safety of the Lord’s people. . . . On this account, a people obedient to the Lord’s commandments, and fearing God, should separate themselves from a sinful prelate. They should not associate themselves with the sacrifices of a sacrilegious priest. This is especially so since they themselves have the power of either choosing worthy priests or of rejecting unworthy ones. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.370
It is evident that men of that kind may neither rule over the church of Christ, nor ought to offer sacrifices to God. This is especially so since Cornelius also, our colleague, a peaceable and righteous priest [bishop of Rome] . . . has long ago decreed with us and with all the bishops appointed throughout the whole world that men of this sort might indeed be admitted to repentance, but were prohibited from ordination to the clergy or to priestly honor. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.371
How can he who is himself unclean and in whom the Holy Spirit does not dwell, cleanse and sanctify the water [of baptism]? For the Lord says in the book of Numbers, “And whatever the unclean person touches will be unclean.” . . . After all, what prayer can a priest who is impious and is a sinner offer for a baptized person? For it is written, “God does not hear a sinner” [John 9:31]. . . . Who can give what he himself does not have? How can he discharge spiritual functions who himself has lost the Holy Spirit? Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.376
Any presbyters or deacons who have been previously ordained in the catholic church but have subsequently left as traitors and rebels . . . can be received when they return—only on the condition that they thereafter communicate as laymen. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.379
Beloved, we know that the bishop and all the clergy should be an example in all good works to the people. Malchion (c. 270, E), 6.170
It is not right either that those of the clergy who have deserted of their own accord and have lapsed, but have taken up the contest anew, should remain any longer in their sacred office. Peter of Alexandria (c. 310, E), 6.274
If a presbyter comes from another parish, let him be received to communion by the presbyters. Let a deacon be received by the deacons. If he is a bishop, let him sit with the bishops. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.422
Let not a bishop, priest, or a deacon cast off his own wife under the pretense of piety. . . . Let not a bishop, priest, or deacon undertake the cares of this world. If he does, let him be deprived. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.500
He who has taken a widow, a divorced woman, a harlot, a servant, or someone belonging to the theater cannot be a bishop, priest, deacon, or indeed any one of the priestly category. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.501
Of those who come into the clergy unmarried, we permit only the readers and singers to marry afterwards, if they so desire. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.501
If a bishop, presbyter, or deacon indulges himself in dice or drinking, he must either leave off those practices or else let him be deprived. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.502
Let not the presbyters and deacons do anything without the consent of the bishop. For it is he who is entrusted with the people of the Lord and will be required to give an account of their souls. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.502
We do not permit slaves to be ordained into the clergy without their masters’ consent. For this would grieve those who owned them. . . . However, if at any time a slave appears worthy to be ordained into a high office (such as Onesimus appeared to be), and if his master allows it and gives him his freedom, dismissing him from his house—let him be ordained. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.505
VI. Material support of the clergy
For it is written in the law of Moses, “You will not muzzle an ox while it treads out the grain.” Is it oxen God is concerned about? Or does He say it altogether for our sakes? For our sakes, no doubt, this is written. . . . The Lord has commanded that those who preach the gospel should live from the gospel.” 1 Cor. 9:9, 10, 14
No one engaged in warfare entangles himself with the affairs of this life, that he may please him who enlisted him as a soldier. . . . The hard-working farmer must be first to partake of the crops. 2 Tim. 2:4, 6
Let him who is taught the word share in all good things with him who teaches. Gal. 6:6
Natalius was persuaded by them to let himself be chosen bishop of this heresy, on the understanding that he would receive from them a salary of a hundred and fifty denarii a month. . . . He gave little heed to the visions, being ensnared by the distinction of presiding over them and by that sordid lust of gain that ruins very many. Eusebius, quoting Caius (c. 215, W), 5.602
It was decreed in a council of the bishops that no one should appoint any of the clergy and the ministers of God as an executor or guardian in his will. For everyone honored by the divine priesthood, and ordained in the clerical service, should serve only the altar and sacrifices and should have time for prayers and supplications. For it is written: “No man that wars for God entangles himself with the affairs of this life.” . . . But in the honor of the brethren who contribute—receiving as it were the tenths of the fruits—they should not withdraw from the altars and sacrifices. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.367
Let the bishop view such food and clothing sufficient as meets necessity and decency. Let him not make use of the Lord’s goods as another’s. Rather, let him use them moderately, “for the laborer is worthy of his reward.” Let him not be luxurious in diet or fond of idle furniture. . . . Let him use as a man of God those tithes and first-fruits that are given according to the command of God. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.408
Those who attend upon the church should be maintained by the church—as being priests, Levites, presidents, and ministers of God. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.409
As much as is given to each one of the elder women, let double that amount be given to the deacons, in honor of Christ. Let also a double portion be set apart for the presbyters. . . . If there is a reader, let him receive a single portion. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.411
VII. References to married clergy
Do we have no right to take along a believing wife, as do also the other apostles, the brothers of the Lord, and Cephas? 1 Cor. 9:5
A bishop then must be blameless, the husband of one wife. . . . Let deacons be the husbands of one wife, ruling their children and their own houses well. 1 Tim. 3:2, 12
I am greatly grieved for Valens, who was once a presbyter among you. . . . I am deeply grieved, therefore, brethren, for him and his wife. May the Lord grant true repentance to them. Polycarp (c. 135, E), 1.35
In fact, Paul completely approves of the man who is the husband of one wife—whether he is a bishop, presbyter, deacon, or layman—so long as he conducts his marriage beyond reproach. Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.398
Let not a bishop, priest, or a deacon cast off his own wife under the pretense of piety. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.500
If any bishop, presbyter, or deacon (or indeed anyone of the priestly category) abstains from marriage, meat, and wine not for his own discipline but because he abominates these things, he forgets that “all things were very good” and that “God made man male and female.” So he blasphemously abuses the creation. Therefore, either let him reform, or else let him be deprived and be cast out of the church. The same is true for any of the laity. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.503
VIII. The beginnings of clerical celibacy
If also, however, anyone who is in holy orders should become married, he [Callistus, bishop of Rome] permitted such a one to continue in holy orders as if he had not sinned. And he alleges that what has been spoken by the apostle refers to such a person: “Who are you to judge another man’s servant?” Hippolytus (c. 225, W), 5.131
Of those who come into the clergy unmarried, we permit only the readers and singers to marry afterwards, if they so desire. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.501
IX. Clergy and laity distinctions
The English word “clergy” comes from the Greek word kleros, which means a “lot.” After the ascension of Christ, Matthias was selected by casting lots. Eventually, the term kleros came to mean the person selected for a ministerial office—whether or not by casting lots. The English word “laity” comes from the Greek word laos, which simply means “people.”
My brethren, let not many of you become teachers, knowing that we will receive a stricter judgment. Jas. 3:1
And so it came to pass that [among the heretics] today one man is their bishop, tomorrow another. Today he is a deacon who tomorrow is a reader. Today he is a presbyter who tomorrow is a layman. For even on laymen they impose the functions of priesthood. Tertullian (c. 197, W), 3.263
Among us, the commandment is more fully and more carefully laid down, that they who are chosen into the priestly order must be men of one marriage. This rule is so rigidly observed that I remember some who were removed from their office for a second marriage. But you will say, “then all others may [remarry], whom he excepts.” Vain will we be if we think that what is not lawful for priests is lawful for laity. Are not even we laymen priests? Tertullian (c. 212, W, Montanistic), 4.54
But when persons in authority themselves—I mean, the very deacons, presbyters, and bishops—take flight, how will a layman be able to see? Tertullian (c. 212, W), 4.122
He rolled not only beneath the feet of the clergy, but those even of the laity, moving the pity of the compassionate church of the merciful Christ by his weeping. Eusebius, quoting Caius (c. 215, W), 5.602
[Demetrius] has added to his letter that this is a matter that was never heard of before, and has never been done: that laymen should take part in public speaking when there are bishops present. However, in this assertion, he has evidently departed far from the truth. . . . For, indeed, wherever there are found persons capable of profiting the brethren, such persons are exhorted by the holy bishops to address the people. Alexander of Cappadocia (c. 250, E), 6.154
X. Priesthood of church leaders
I have written very boldly to you on some points, so as to remind you again, because of the grace that was given me from God, to be a minister of Christ Jesus to the Gentiles, ministering as a priest the gospel of God. Rom. 15:15, 16
Every first-fruit, therefore, of the products of wine-press and threshing-floor, of oxen and of sheep, you will take and give to the prophets, for they are your high priests. Didache (c. 80–140, E), 7.381
[AMONG THE HERETICS:] Today he is a presbyter who tomorrow is a layman. For even on laymen do they impose the functions of priesthood. Tertullian (c. 197, W), 3.263
Of giving [baptism], the chief priest (who is the bishop) has the right. In the next place, the presbyters and deacons—yet, not without the bishop’s authority, on account of the honor of the church. When it is preserved, peace is preserved. Tertullian (c. 198, W), 3.677
Those who devote themselves to the divine Word and have no other employment but the service of God may not unnaturally . . . be called our Levites and priests. And those who fulfill a more distinguished office than their kinsmen will perhaps be high priests, according to the order of Aaron (but not that of Melchizedek). Here someone may object that it is somewhat too bold to apply the name of “high priests” to men. For Jesus Himself is spoken of in many a prophetic passage as the one great priest. . . . For that reason, we say that men can be high priests according to the order of Aaron. However, as to the order of Melchizedek, only the Christ of God can be High Priest. Origen (c. 228, E), 9.298.
He immediately received the presbyterate and the priesthood. Pontius the deacon (c. 258, W), 5.267
What kind of people do you think they are who are the enemies of the priests and are rebels against the catholic church? . . . Heresies have arisen and schisms have originated from no other source than this: that God’s priest is not obeyed. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.340
If we are priests of God and of Christ, I do not know anyone whom we ought rather to follow than God and Christ. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.363
Give to the priest those things that are due to him—the first-fruits of your [threshing] floor and of your wine-press, along with sin offerings. For he is as a mediator between God and those who stand in need of purgation and forgiveness. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.413
XI. Priesthood of all believers
I beseech you therefore, brethren, by the mercies of God, that you present your bodies a living sacrifice, holy, acceptable to God, which is your reasonable service. Rom. 12:1
You also, as living stones, are being built up a spiritual house, a holy priesthood, to offer up spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ. 1 Pet. 2:5
Blessed and holy is he who has part in the first resurrection. Over such the second death has no power, but they shall be priests of God and of Christ. Rev. 20:6
David had been appointed as a priest by God, although Saul persecuted him. For all of the righteous possess the priestly rank. And all the disciples of the Lord are priests, for they inherit here neither lands nor houses. Rather, they serve God and the altar continually. . . . His disciples had a priesthood of the Lord. So, for them it was lawful when hungry to eat the ears of corn. Irenaeus (c. 180, E/W), 1.471
In the preceding book, I have shown that all the disciples of the Lord are Levites and priests, . . . but they are blameless. Irenaeus (c. 180, E/ W), 1.564
The spiritual man is, then, the truly kingly man. He is the sacred high priest of God. Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.533
But you are a chosen race, a royal priesthood.” That we are a chosen race by the election of God is abundantly clear. He says “royal” because we are called to sovereignty and belong to Christ. He says “priesthood” because of the oblation that is made by prayers and instructions, through which souls are gained. Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.572
We are the true worshippers and the true priests who, praying in the spirit, offer a sacrifice in spirit: prayer, which is a proper and acceptable victim to God. Tertullian (c. 198, W), 3.690
Vain will we be if we think that what is not lawful for priests is lawful for laity. Are not even we laymen priests? It is written: “He has made us a kingdom also and priests to His God and Father.” It is the authority of the church, and the honor that has acquired sanctity through the body of ecclesiastical order, that has established the difference between the ordained and the laity. Accordingly, where there is no body of the ecclesiastical order, you [the layman] offer, baptize, and are priest, alone for yourself. For where there are three persons—even if they are laity—there is a church. . . . If you have the right of a priest in your own persons in cases of necessity, it behooves you to have likewise the discipline of a priest whenever it may be necessary to have the right of a priest. If you are twice-married, do you baptize? If you are twice-married, do you offer? How much more wrong is it for a twice-married layman to act as a priest, when the priest himself, if he becomes twice-married, is deprived of the power of acting as a priest! But you say, “to necessity, indulgence is granted.” Tertullian (c. 212, W), 4.54
[Demetrius] has added to his letter that this is a matter that was never heard of before, and has never been done: that laymen should take part is public speaking when there are bishops present. However, in this assertion, he has evidently departed far from the truth. . . . For, indeed, wherever there are found persons capable of profiting the brethren, such persons are exhorted by the holy bishops to address the people. Alexander of Cappadocia (c. 250, E), 6.154
For he who will have kept the undertaking of virginity completely and will have faithfully fulfilled the precepts of the Decalogue . . . he is the true priest of Christ. Victorinus (c. 280, W), 7.359
Let him who teaches, teach. This is true even if he is one of the laity—if he is skillful in the Word and serious in his living. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.495